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ELEMENTS 

OF  THE  THEORY  AND  PRACTICE 

OF  COOKERY 


THE  MACMILLAN  COMPANY 

NEW  YORK   •    BOSTON   •    CHICAGO  -    DALLAS 
ATLANTA  •    SAN   FRANCISCO 

MACMILLAN  &  CO.,  Limited 

LONDON  •    BOMBAY  •    CALCUTTA 
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THE  MACMILLAN  CO.  OF  CANADA,  Ltd. 

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Digitized  by  the  Internet  Archive 

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PLATE  I. 


ii 

1 

Dinner-wagon,  or  Butler's  Tray.    A  Saver  of  Steps  between  Kitchen  and 

Dining-room. 


ELEMENTS 

THEORY  AND  PBiAOf XOE  OF 

COOKERY 

A   TEXT-BOOK  OF  DOMESTIC  SCIENCE   FOR 
USE  IN  SCHOOLS 

New  Edition  —  Revised  and  Enlarged 
BY 

MARY  E.   WILLIAMS 

LATE    DIRECTOR   OF   HOME    ECONOMICS   IN   THE    PUBLIC    SCHOOLS 

OF  NEW  YORK  CITY  AND  DIRECTOR  OF  THE  DEPARTMENT 

OF   HOME    ECONOMICS    IN   NEW   YORK    UNIVERSITY 

AND 

KATHARINE   ROLSTON   FISHER 

FORMERLY    INSTRUCTOR    IN    HOME    ECONOMICS    IN   THE 
PUBLIC    SCHOOLS   OF   NEW   YORK   CITY 


THE    MACMILLAN   COMPANY 

LONDON:  MACMILLAN  &  CO.,  Ltd. 

1916 

All  rights  reserved 


c^ju-c^  (&jJisJr\ 


COPTEIGHT,   1901,   1916, 

By  the  MACMILLAN  COMPANY. 


Set  up  and  electrotyped.    Published  May,  1916. 


Nortooolr  H^xtm 

J.  8.  Gushing  Co.  —  Berwick  &  Smith  Co. 

Norwood,  Mass.,  U.S.A. 


JU 


PREFATORY   NOTE 

The  continued  demand  for  this  textbook  has  prompted  this 
new  edition. 

In  preparing  it,  the  first  aim  has  been  to  bring  the  subject- 
matter  up  to  date ;  the  second,  to  adapt  it  for  use  in  both  rural 
and  city  schools  in  all  parts  of  the  country. 

The  text  on  Food  in  Relation  to  Life,  the  Preservation  of 
Food,  Food  for  Babies,  and  Digestion,  has  been  largely  re- 
written. Two  new  chapters  have  been  added,  one  on  the  Serv- 
ing of  Food,  and  one  on  Laundering.  Every  other  chapter 
includes  new  matter  which  embodies  the  results  either  of  scien- 
tific progress  or  of  practical  experience. 

Among  the  many  persons  who  have  contributed  to  the  prepa- 
ration of  this  edition  by  giving  information  or  by  making  help- 
ful suggestions  are  Miss  Cora  M.  Winchell,  Assistant  Professor 
of  Household  Arts  Education  at  Teachers  College,  Columbia 
University ;  Dr.  Hermann  T.  Vulte,  Assistant  Professor  of 
Household  Arts,  Teachers  College  ;  Miss  Sadie  B.  Vanderbilt, 
Instructor  in  Household  Arts,  Teachers  College  ;  Miss  Amy 
Logan,  Instructor  in  Household  Arts,  Horace  Mann  High 
School;  Miss  L.  Belle  Sage,  Instructor  in  Biology,  and  Miss 
Ada  Roe,  Instructor  in  Household  Economics,  Washington 
Irving  High  School,  New  York  City;  Miss  Helen  Munch, 
Miss  Clara  Pancake,  Miss  Helen  Banquo,  Miss  Mamie  Gearing, 
Miss  Marion  C.  Ricker,  Dr.  Augusta  Rucker,  Miss  Agnes 
Daley,  and  Miss  Eleanor  Kalbfleisch. 


700925 


vi  PREFATORY  NOTE 

Miss  Florence  Willard,  Chairman  of  the  Department  oi 
Household  Economics,  Washington  Irving  High  School,  has 
rendered  valuable  assistance  in  many  ways. 

Mrs.  Max  West,  of  the  Children's  Bureau,  United  States 
Department  of  Labor,  has  been  of  material  assistance  in  the 
preparation  of  the  section  on  Infant  Feeding. 

The  authors  desire  to  express  their  cordial  thanks  for  the 
information  courteously  and  readily  given  by  many  experts  in 
the  United  States  Department  of  Agriculture,  among  them 
Dr.  Charles  F.  Langworthy,  Miss  Caroline  L.  Hunt,  Mr.  Rob- 
ert Milner,  and  Mr.  Harold  L.  Lang  of  the  Office  of  Home 
Economics  ;  Mr.  L.  A.  Rogers  of  the  Dairy  Division,  Dr.  J. 
Arthur  LeClerc,  Dr.  Martin  N.  Straughn,  Mr.  Carleton  Bates, 
Miss  Ruth  Greathouse,  Mr.  Calvin  G.  Church,  Mr.  Walter  C. 
Taber,  Miss  Anne  E.  Draper,  and  Mr.  Edward  M.  Chase,  of  the 
Bureau  of  Chemistry.  Miss  Mary  E.  Cresswell,  in  charge  of 
Girls'  Canning  Clubs,  has  read  the  manuscript  of  the  sections 
on  Microorganisms  and  Canning,  and  has  assisted  materially 
in  the  preparation  of  these  and  of  some  other  portions  of  the 
book. 

Especially  are  thanks  due  for  the  courtesies  extended  by 
Miss  Claribel  R.  Barnett,  Director  of  the  Library  of  the  United 
States  Department  of  Agriculture,  and  the  help  given  by  her 
staff,  including  the  staff  of  the  branch  in  the  Bureau  of  Chem- 
istry. 

The  Household  Arts  Library  of  Teachers  College  has  also 
been  of  service,  and  the  privilege  of  its  use  is  fully  appreciated. 

The  proof  has  been  critically  read  by  Miss  Margaret  M.  Holt, 
Miss  Agnes  Daley,  Miss  Jennie  B.  Jameson,  and  Miss  Eleanor 
Kalbfleisch  of  the  Department  of  Household  Economics  of  the 
New  York  City  Public  Schools. 


NOTES   TO   TEACHERS 

The  plan  of  this  textbook  does  not  assume  the  employment 
of  any  one  particular  method  of  teaching  cookery.  The  book 
can  be  used  equally  well  whether  the  pupils  work  individually 
or  in  groups. 

Recipes  making  quantities  suitable  for  a  small  family  are 
given,  as  being  the  most  practicable  from  all  points  of  view. 
The  individual  recipe  is  not  adapted  to  home  use,  nor  is  it  so 
easy  to  multiply  as  it  is  to  divide  the  ordinary  recipe  to  make 
the  latter  meet  the  requirements  of  individual  practice. 

The  subject-matter  in  this  book  can  be  covered  in  four  terms 
(two  school  years)  by  classes  of  girls  in  the  sixth  and  seventh 
or  seventh  and  eighth  years  of  school,  one  two-hour  lesson  being 
given  each  week. 

The  chapter  topics  are  taken  up  in  an  order  that  experience  has 
shown  to  be  a  natural  and  convenient  one.  The  progression  has 
been  carefully  worked  out,  as  a  glance  at  the  table  of  contents 
will  show.  Numerous  cross-references,  however,  which  enable 
the  pupil  readily  to  turn  to  related  topics  in  any  part  of  the 
book,  make  it  practicable  for  the  teacher  to  vary  this  order. 
Certain  portions  of  the  text  are  printed  solid,  e.g.  Section  5  of 
Chapter  I,  and  page  97  together  with  part  of  page  98,  to  indi- 
cate that  they  may,  at  the  discretion  of  the  teacher,  be  left  until 
later  in  the  course,  without  interfering  with  the  continuity  of 
the  work. 

On  the  other  hand,  the  sections  of  a  chapter  are  not  necessa- 
rily to  be  taken  up  in  the  order  in  which  they  stand.     In  many 


Vlll  NOTES  TO  TEACHERS 

cases,  subject-matter  from  different  sections  of  the  same  chap 
ter  may  properly  be  presented  in  one  lesson.  For  example, 
Sections  2  and  3  of  Chapter  II  would  naturally  be  taken  up 
together. 

The  subject  of  cleaning  is  treated  in  considerable  detail 
(Chapter  I,  Section  3),  both  because  of  its  importance  as  a  part 
of  a  course  in  household  science,  and  in  order  to  facilitate  the 
keeping  of  the  school  kitchen  and  its  equipment  in  proper  con- 
dition. Each  pupil  should  be  thoroughly  familiar  with  this 
section,  so  that  when  called  on  to  serve  as  housekeeper  she 
should  know  how  to  perform  her  duties,  and  where  to  turn  in 
the  textbook  to  refresh  her  memory  with  regard  to  them. 

With  the  exception  of  this  section  on  Cleanliness  and  Clean- 
ing, no  part  of  the  book  is  intended  to  be  studied  at  home  be- 
fore being  taken  up  in  class.  Sections  4  and  5  of  Chapter  I, 
both  sections  of  Chapter  V,  and  Chapter  XV  are  designed  to 
be  used  chiefly  for  reference. 

Directions  for  performing  experiments  and  for  making  tests 
and  "  studies  "  are  explicit,  in  order  that  each  pupil  may  carry 
them  out  individually,  —  at  school,  if  conditions  permit,  if  not, 
then  at  home. 

A  microscope  is  a  desirable  part  of  the  equipment  of  a  school 
kitchen,  but  if  one  is  not  available,  drawings  or  charts  showing 
the  appearance  of  common  foods  and  foodstuffs  under  the 
microscope  may  answer  instead  of  an  exhibition  of  the  speci- 
men itself. 

In  taking  up  a  new  topic,  this  book,  as  a  rule,  gives  opportu- 
nity for  some  practice  work  before  presenting  any  theory. 
Principles  are  taught  in  connection  with  their  application,  and 
the  classification  of  foods  and  general  statements  about  them 
are  deferred  until  some  practical  acquaintance  has  been  gained 
with  typical  foods  and  their  chief  constituents.  It  will  be 
observed  that  the  recipes  in  the  section  on  Food  for  the  Sick 


NOTES  TO  TEACHERS  ix 

(Section  2  of  Chapter  XI)  are  so  classified  and  arranged  that 
this  section  forms  a  review  of  the  different  classes  of  foods  in 
the  same  order  in  which  they  are  taken  up  in  the  preceding 
chapters. 

Although  beverages  are  grouped  by  themselves,  they  are 
treated  independently  of  each  other  and  of  other  topics,  in 
order  that  they  may  be  taken  up  separately  whenever  con- 
venient. A  lesson  on  tea  may  be  given  in  connection  with  the 
study  of  water,  tea-making  thus  forming  the  first  practice  work 
of  the  course.  Instruction  in  the  preparation  of  cocoa  and 
chocolate  can  be  given  to  better  advantage  after  milk  has  been 
studied. 

Opportunity  is  offered,  especially  by  means  of  the  experi- 
ments, "  studies,"  and  suggestions  for  reading  and  home  work, 
for  correlation  with  history,  drawing,  and  the  natural  sciences. 
It  is  desirable  that  every  teacher  of  household  science  should 
make  the  most  of  these  opportunities,  and  should  secure  the 
cooperation  of  principal  and  grade-teachers  in  correlating,  not 
these  branches  only,  but  English  and  mathematics  as  well,  with 
the  work  of  the  school  kitchen. 


CONTENTS 


INTRODUCTION 


PACK 

Homes  and  Home-making 

.              .              1 

CHAPTER  I 

Preparatory  Lessons 

SECTION 

1.    Fire  and  fuels 

5 

2.    Water. 

.        .      22 

3.    Cleanliness  and  cleaning 

.      29 

4.    Definitions,  tables,  rules 

.        .        .      48 

6.   Household  chemistry 

.        .        .      55 

CHAPTER  II 
Some  Starchy  Plants 

1.  The  potato .  59 

2.  Starch 67 

3.  Cereals ;  Breakfast  foods 73 

4.  Wheat,  the  king  of  cereals 80 


CHAPTER   III 
Tissue-building  Foods:  Eggs  and  Milk 


1.  Eggs;  Albumin  . 

2.  Milk ;  Butter ;  Cheese 


83 
93 


xii  CONTENTS 

CHAPTER  IV 
Bread 

SECTION  PAGE 

1.  Quick  breads  —  Baking-powders 104 

2.  Flour 116 

3.  Macaroni  and  other  flour  pastes 120 

4.  Yeast  bread  — Yeast 123 


CHAPTER  V 

Food  in  its  Relation  to  Life 

1.  Bodystuffs  and  foodstuffs 139 

2.  Diet .     146 

CHAPTER  VI 

Meat,  Fish,  and  Poultry 

1.  Meat :  Its  structure,  composition,  and  cooking  .         .        .         .150 

2.  Meat :  Cuts,  marketing,  and  food  value 177 

3.  Poultry .194 

4.  Fish  and  shell-fish 200 


CHAPTER  VII 

Fuel  Foods  :   Fat  from  Animals  and  Oil  from  Plants 

1.  Fats  and  oils 213 

2.  Cooking  in  fat :  Frying  and  sauteing 218 

CHAPTER  VIII 

Fruits  and  Vegetables 

1.  Fruits 227 

2.  Vegetables 237 

3.  Cream-of-vegetable  soups 253 

4.  Salads 258 


CONTENTS  XIU 

CHAPTER  IX 
Sugar  and  Sweets 

PAOS 
SECTION  _-« 

1.  Sugar  — Candies ^^'^ 

2.  Cakes  and  desserts ■*'** 

3.  Ice-cream  and  water-ices 287 

4.  Pastry  — Pies 201 

CHAPTER  X 
The  Preservation  of  Food 

1.  Microorganisms  in  relation  to  food 294 

2.  Canning 298 

3.  Jam  and  jelly  :  Pectin 303 

CHAPTER  XI 
Special  Diets 

1.  Food  for  babies.  . 309 

2.  Food  for  the  sick 327 

CHAPTER   XII 
Tea,  Coffee,  Cocoa 

1.  Tea •    33*^ 

2.  Cocoa  and  chocolate 343 

CHAPTER  XIII 
The  Serving  of  Food 

1.  Table  service 348 

2.  Preparing  meals 356 

CHAPTER  XIV 
Laundering •        •     360 

CHAPTER  XV 
Digestion      .  366 


ELEMENTS  OF  THE  THEORY  AND 
PRACTICE  OF  COOKERY 

INTRODUCTION 
HOMES   AND   HOME-MAKING 

The  business  of  home-making.  —  Have  you  ever  thought 
what  an  important  business  home-making  is  ?  The'  wel- 
fare of  a  nation  is  founded  upon  the  welfare  of  famiUes,  and 
the  welfare  of  a  family  depends  upon  its  having  a  healthful, 
happy  home. 

Women  the  home-makers.  —  The  home,  as  we  know  it, 
has  grown  out  of  the  need  of  a  shelter  for  family  life. 
Parent  birds  build  nests,  not  for  themselves,  but  for  their 
young.  The  first  homes  of  human  beings  were  caves. 
Women  have  always  been  the  home-makers.  In  early 
times  men  spent  their  lives  in  hunting  and  fighting.  The 
animals  they  killed  they  brought  home  for  the  women  to 
cook.  When  they  learned  to  raise  grain,  it  was  the  women 
who  crushed  it  or  ground  it  between  stones.  Women  made 
clay  dishes  and  baked  them  by  the  fire  or  in  the  sun.  For  a 
long  time  after  people  became  civilized  and  lived  in  comfort- 
able houses,  nearly  everything  used  in  each  home  was 
made  in  it.     Up  to  a  century  ago,  even,  women  made  at 

B  1 


2       THEORY  AND  PRACTICE  OF  COOKERY 

home  clatV  soap/  eafiUl^s,  ^  and  many  other  things  which 
are  ngwjHi^cie'.in'-TSQtofies, ,  As  a  rule,  the  only  work  we  do 
or  have  done  for  us  by  others  at  home  is  housework ;  that 
is,  cooking,  cleaning,  and  laundry  work. 

Natural  science  and  domestic  science.  —  Natural  science 
is  what  we  know  about  nature,  about  earth  and  air  and 
water,  about  fire  and  electricity  and  other  natural  forces, 
about  plants  and  animals.  Applied  science  is  the  use  of 
this  knowledge  to  improve  our  way  of  living.  Domestic 
science  is  the  application  of  natural  science  to  housework. 
Cookery  is  often  defined  as  the  art  of  preparing  food  for  the 
nourishment  of  the  body.  But  cookery  is  taught  in  schools 
not  merely  as  an  art,  but  as  a  branch  of  domestic  science. 
As  such,  it  includes  both  practice,  learning  how  to  do  things, 
and  theory,  learning  why  they  should  be  done. 

Home  and  school  ought  to  work  for  the  good  of  the 
nation.  —  In  its  mission  of  training  children  to  be  good 
citizens,  the  school  needs  help  from  the  home.  For  with- 
out right  home  conditions,  including  a  sufficient  supply  of 
suitable  and  well-cooked  food,  boys  and  girls  cannot  have 
the  strong  bodies  and  clear  minds  needed  for  doing  school 
work  while  they  are  children,  and  for  their  life-work  as  men 
and  women.  Think,  then,  how  important  to  the  nation  it 
is  that  home-makers  should  have  a  knowledge  of  Domestic 
Science ! 

Training  for  home-making.  —  All  knowledge  comes  by 
study  and  practice;  a  girl  spends  two  years,  at  least,  in 
fitting  herself  to  teach ;  a  boy,  even  longer  in  learning 
a   business   or   trade.     Is    special   preparation   less   neces- 


HOMES  AND  HOME-MAKING  3 

sary  for  home-making,  which  involves  many  kinds  of 
work,  some  of  them  difficult,  and  which  usually  includes 
the  noblest  of  all  occupations,  the  care  and  training  of 
children  ? 

In  studying  Domestic  Science,  and  particularly  in  study- 
ing Cookery,  you  will  not  only  learn  many  interesting 
things  that  you  would  be  unlikely  to  discover  for  yourself 
in  doing  housework  at  home,  but  you  will  find  pleasure  in 
the  work  itself.  Because  certain  household  duties  may 
seem  hard  or  unpleasant  is  no  reason  for  considering  house- 
work unworthy  of  attention.  Some  people  make  hard  work 
of  housekeeping  by  doing  it  in  an  unthinking  way ;  when, 
by  putting  their  minds  upon  it,  they  might  discover  how  to 
make  it  easier  and  pleasanter.  Only  by  treating  house- 
keeping as  an  honorable  employment,  worthy  of  our  best 
thought  and  skill,  can  we  bring  about  conditions  of  health, 
comfort,  and  happiness  in  our  homes. 

General  value  of  domestic  science.  —  It  is  true  that  there 
is  less  housework  to  be  done  than  there  used  to  be.  Modern 
conveniences  and  the  partial  preparation  of  much  of  our 
food  before  we  buy  it  lighten  the  housewife's  burden.  But 
more  intelligence  is  needed  to  use  these  conveniences  and 
select  these  foods. 

It  is  true  also  that  more  women  than  formerly  are  doing 
work  other  than  housekeeping.  But  all  must  eat,  and 
therefore  all  young  people,  boys  as  well  as  girls,  will  find  it 
worth  while  to  learn  about  food,  its  preparation,  and  its  uses 
in  the  body.  For  eating  right  is  a  help  toward  thinking 
and  doing  right. 


4       THEORY  AND  PRACTICE  OF  COOKERY 

Notable  among  American  women  is  Ellen  H.  Richards,  a  pro- 
fessor of  chemistry  who  devoted  her  life  to  solving  household 
problems  with  the  aid  of  science.  She  wrote  :  ''The  very  essence 
of  science  is  plasticity.  If  home  life  is  to  be  saved,  new  forms 
must  be  found  suitable  for  the  time.  The  school  of  to-day  must 
furnish  the  home  of  to-morrow  with  its  weapons  of  defence.  But 
the  school  of  to-day  must  be  in  line  with  the  scientific  spirit  of  to- 
day, ever  searching  for  the  better  way.  Let  us  keep  ever  ready  to 
take  the  next  step.  The  right  solution  of  keeping  a  happy  healthy 
home  will  come  at  last." 

Brief  Reference  List 

For  further  development  of  topics  treated  in  this  section 
see:  — 

Mason:  Woman^s  share  in  primitive  culture.  (Illustrations  show  primi- 
tive homes  and  home  industries.) 

Earle  :  Home  life  in  colonial  days. 

Richards  :  Art  of  right  living. 

Beard  :  American  citizenship.  Ch.  2,  Food,  clothing,  and  shelter. 
Ch.  3,  The  family. 

Terrill  :  Household  management.    Housekeeping  a  profession,  pp.  5-16. 

Hunt  :  Life  of  Ellen  H.  Richards. 


CHAPTER  I 
PREPARATORY  LESSONS 

Section  1.     Fire  and  Fuels 

Food  is  cooked  chiefly  by  means  of  heat.  Heat  is  com- 
monly obtained  by  burning  something.  Let  us  learn  what 
we  can  about  fire. 

A   STUDY   OF   COMBUSTION 

Experiments.  A.  Into  a  clean  bottle  pour  a  little  clear  lime-water; 
cork  the  bottle,  and  shake  it  so  that  the  hme-water  may  come  in  contact 
with  the  air  in  the  bottle.  Do  you  see  any  change  in  the  appearance  of 
the  hme-water? 

B.  Insert  a  spUnter  in  a  cork,  Ught  the  splinter,  and  fit  the  cork  into 
the  neck  of  a  bottle.  What  happens?  Pour  a  Uttle  clear  hme-water  into 
the  bottle  and  shake.     Note  the  effect  on  the  hme-water. 

Air  in  which  a  splinter  has  been  burned  turns  lime-water 
cloudy.  It,  must  therefore  differ  in  some  way  from  ordi- 
nary air. 

The  composition  of  air ;  formation  of  carbon  dioxide  by 
burning.  —  Air  is  a  mixture  of  gases,  chiefly .  oxygen  and 
nitrogen.  Wood  contains  carbon.  When  the  splinter 
burns,  the  oxygen  in  the  air  and  the  carbon  in  the  wood 
unite,  forming  a  new  substance,  the  gas  carbon  dioxide. 

5 


6 


THEORY  AND  PRACTICE  OF  COOKERY 


Nothing  will  burn  in  carbon  dioxide.  So  when  all  the 
oxygen  in  the  bottle  is  used,  and  carbon  dioxide  has  taken 
its  place,  the  fire  goes  out.^ 

It  is  carbon  dioxide  that  turns  lime-water  cloudy.  As 
only  carbon  dioxide  has  this  effect,  a  simple  way  to  show 
its  presence  in  air  is  to  bring  the  air  in  contact  with  lime- 
water,  as  in  Experiment  B. 


A   STUDY   OF   COMBUSTION 


CONTINUED 


Experiments  with  a  candle.  C.  Set  a  two-inch  piece  of  candle  on  the 
table  and  light  it.  How  does  it  burn?  Notice  the  appearance  of  the 
flame.     (Fig.  1,  a.) 

D.  Set  over  the  candle  a  lamp-chimney  supported  on  two  pencils  or 
blocks  of  wood.     (Fig.  1,  b.)     Notice  how  the  flame  has  changed.     Hold 


your  hand  for  a  moment  about  two  inches  above  the  chimney,  and  notice 
the  heat  felt.  Hold  a  bit  of  tissue  paper  just  above  the  chimney.  Is  it 
drawn  upward  or  downward?  Hold  it  near  the  space  at  the  base  of  the 
chimney.     Is  it  drawn  outward  or  inward  ? 

*  The  blackened  part  of  the  splinter  which  is  left  is  unburned  carbon 
(charcoal). 


PREPARATORY  LESSONS  7 

E.  Remove  the  supports,  letting  the  chimney  rest  upon  the  table. 
(Fig.  1,  c.)  Test  for  heat  with  your  hand,  then  hold' the  bit  of  paper  as 
before.  Do  you  feel  any  heat  ?  Does  the  paper  move  ?  What  happens 
to  the  candle?  Can  you,  by  recalhng  the  experiment  with  the  splinter 
and  the  bottle,  explain  this? 

F.  Relight  the  candle,  replace  the  chimney  upon  the  supports,  and 
cover  the  top  with  a  piece  of  thick  cardboard.  (Fig.  1,  d.)  What  hap- 
pens? Explain.  Removing  the  cardboard,  quickly  thrust  a  lighted 
splinter  inside  of  the  chimney.     What  gas  do  you  think  may  be  present? 

G.  Through  a  tiny  hole  in  the  cardboard  pass  a  fine  wire  bent  into  a 
small  loop  at  one  end.  Arrange  candle  and  chimney  as  in  Exp.  D.  Dip 
the  wire  loop  into  clear  Ume-water,  which  should  form  a  film  across  the 
loop.  Cover  the  chimney  with  the  cardboard,  letting  the  wire  hang  in- 
side. (Fig.  1,  e.)  About  two  minutes  after  the  candle  goes  out  examine 
the  film.  What  gas  has  been  formed?  Is  the  candle  as  large  as  it  was 
before  it  was  Ughted?    What  has  become  of  the  part  that  has  disappeared  ? 

Explanation  of  the  burning  of  a  candle.  —  When  a  candle 
is  lighted,  the  wax,  by  the  heat  of  the  burning  match,  is 
first  melted,  and  then,  being  soaked  up  by  the  wick,  is 
changed  to  gas.  The  oxygen  of  the  air,  always  eager  for 
something  to  unite  with,  seizes  upon  this  gas ;  in  other 
w^ords,  the  gas  burns.  Whenever  oxygen  unites  with  an- 
other substance  so  rapidl}^  that  Hght  and  heat  are  given  off, 
we  have  burning,  or  combustion.  The  light  and  heat  we 
call  fire.     Flame  is  burning  gas. 

Drafts.  —  In  still  air  a  candle-flame  streams  straight  up- 
ward. This  is  because  hot  air  is  lighter  than  cold  air  (p.  27). 
As  the  air  near  the  flame  becomes  heated,  it  rises,  and  air 
from  below  flows  toward  the  candle  to  take  its  place.  This 
starts  a  draft.  And,  while  the  burning  of  the  candle  keeps 
up  the  draft,  this  draft  supplies  the  candle  with,  oxygen. 
When  we  place  a  lamp-chimney  over  the  candle,  leaving  a 


8       THEORY  AND  PRACTICE  OF  COOKERY 

space  at  the  bottom,  we  make  the  draft  stronger  by  shut- 
ting off  side-drafts.  The  flame  flickers,  and  the  candle  burns 
faster.  But  if  either  the  opening  at  the  top  of  the  chimney 
or  the  space  between  chimney  and  table  be  closed,  all  draft 
is  stopped  ;  and  as  soon  as  the  oxygen  then  inside  the  chimney 
is  used  up,  the  candle  goes  out.  To  keep  up  combustion, 
then,  we  must  have  a  draft.  For  a  draft  through  an  en- 
closed space  two  openings  are  necessary,  one  to  let  air  in, 
the  other  to  let  it  out. 

Products  of  combustion.  —  As  the  candle  burns,  it  grows 
shorter.  The  wax  is  changed  into  carbon-dioxide,  water- 
vapor,  and  other  gases,  which  stream  off  unseen.  The 
water  is  formed  by  the  union  of  oxygen  with  hydrogen  from 
the  candle.  Not  all  the  carbon  unites  with  oxygen.  Some 
floats  off  in  tiny  particles.  When  there  is  enough  unburned 
carbon  to  be  visible,  we  call  it  smoke.  When  it  is  deposited, 
we  call  it  soot.  There  are  always  enough  carbon  particles 
in  a  candle-flame  to  deposit  soot  on  any  cold  object,  such 
as  a  saucer,  held  in  the  flame.  Anything  that  will  not  burn 
is  said  to  be  incombustible.  A  candle  contains  nothing  in- 
combustible, and  so  leaves  no  ashes. 

Wherever  combustion  takes  place,  whether  in  fireplace, 
stove,  or  lamp ;  whether  a  single  match  burns,  or  a  whole 
building,  something  unites  with  oxygen,  giving  off  heat 
(and  usually  light),  and  forming  products  of  combustion. 

In  order  to  manage  a  kitchen  fire  successfully,  we  must 
understand  the  construction  and  purpose  of  every  part  of 
the  range.  Much  fuel  is  wasted,  food  spoiled,  and  time  lost 
because  women  do  not  take  the  trouble  to  do  this. 


PREPARATORY  LESSONS  9 

THE    COAL   RANGE 

Any  cooking  apparatus  which  burns  coal  is  a  range.  The 
older  term  "  cooking-stove^'  is  sometimes  appHed  to  a  small 
range  on  legs.  A  range  is  setj  if  it  is  built  into  the  wall ; 
portable,  if  it  stands  out  in  the  room.  It  should  stand  upon 
a  brick  hearth,  or  a  sheet  of  zinc,  and  the  wall  near  it  should 
be  of  brick  or  tiling,  or  else  protected  by  zinc. 

A  coal  range  has  the  following  parts  :  — 

1.  Fire-box,  to  contain  fuel. 

2.  Grate,  which  forms  the  floor  of  the  fire-box. 
a.  Draft  slide 


3.   Dampers 


,    ^,     ,  ,  to  regulate  draft. 

b.  Check         J 


^,'  -^^^  <  to  direct  current  of  hot  air. 

d.  Pipe  J 

4.  Ash-pan,  to  receive  ashes,  cinders,  and  cUnkers  (incombustible  waste 

material  and  soUd  products  of  combustion). 

5.  Smoke-pipe,  to  carry  off  smoke  (unburnt  carbon)  and  gaseous  products 

of  combustion. 

6.  One  or  more  ovens,  for  food. 

Some  ranges  have  other  parts,  —  an  oven  for  warming 
dishes,  a  reservoir  to  heat  water,  or  a  water-back,  through 
which  running  water  is  carried  to  heat  it,  more  dampers,  etc. 

The  range  in  detail.  —  When  the  fire  is  out  take  off 
all  the  lids  and  as  much  of  the  top  of  the  stove  as  is  remov- 
able.    Look  first  at  the  fire-box. 

The  fire-box  is  a  rectangular  space  open  at  the  top,  lined 
on  the  sides  with  a  fireproof  material  {fire-bricks) ,  and  hav- 
ing a  movable  grate  for  a  floor. 

Underneath  the  fire-box  is  the  ash-pan.  It  should  be 
emptied  once  a  day,  and  the  space  around  it  brushed  out. 


10      THEORY  AND  PRACTICE  OF  COOKERY 

The  pipe  connects  the  range  with  the  chimney. 

The  oven  in  a  stove  or  a  portable  range  is  back  of  the 
fire-box.  In  a  set  range  there  are  generally  two  ovens, 
one  on  each  side  of  the  fire-box.  An  oven  should  contain 
a  rack.  Between  the  oven  and  the  top,  sides,  and  bottom 
of  the  range  there  is  a  space  for  the  passage  of  air  from  the 
fire-box.  This  space  must  be  cleaned  occasionally  to  keep 
it  from  becoming  choked  with  soot  and  ashes. 

The  dampers  are  slides  or  doors  fitted  to  openings  in 
the  range.  Below  the  fire-box  is  the  draft  slide.  In 
the  smoke-pipe  is  the  pipe  damper,  provided  with  a  hole 
to  let  gases  escape  when  the  damper  is  closed.  At  the 
back  of  each  oven  is  an  oven  damper,  usually  moved  by 
a  rod  extending  to  the  front  of  the  range. 

Management  of  the  dampers.  —  By  opening  the  draft- 
slide,  pipe,  and  oven  dampers,  a  direct  draft  is  produced,  the 
air  passing  from  below  the  grate,  up  through  the  fuel  in  the 
fire-box,  and  out  into  the  chimney.  This  arrangement  of 
dampers  is  used  to  start  the  fire,  or  to  increase  the  heat  of  a 
fire  already  burning.  If  the  draft  slide  be  opened,  and  the 
pipe  damper  closed,  when  a  fire  is  starting,  the  smoke 
will  come  into  the  room.     Why  ? 

By  closing  the  oven  damper,  the  air  heated  in  the  fire- 
box is  made  to  flow  around  the  oven  before  entering  the 
chimney.  By  this  means  the  oven  is  heated,  and  the  force 
of  the  draft  at  the  same  time  lessened  by  its  having  to  make 
its  way  around  corners.  Observe  carefully  the  mechanism 
of  the  dampers.  The  range  in  your  home  may  differ  from  the 
one  at  school. 


PREPARATORY  LESSONS  11 

The  check  damper  is  above  the  fire-box.  Opening 
it  sends  a  stream  of  cold  air  across  the  top  of  the  fire.  Its 
effect  is  to  check  the  fire  by  cooUng  it.  Air  admitted  below 
the  fire-box  feeds  the  fire  with  oxygen. 

Note. — There  are  several  causes  for  poor  draft  besides  fault  in  the 
range.  The  range  may  be  clogged  with  soot  and  fine  ashes,  and  need  to 
be  taken  apart  and  cleaned.  The  chimney  may  not  be  built  right.  A 
tall  building  near  by  may  cut  off  the  draft. 

HOW  TO   MAKE   A   FIRE 

Cleaning  the  fire-box.  —  1.  Close  all  the  dampers  except 
the  oven  dampers. 

2.  Brush  the  ashes  from  the  edge  of  the  fire-box  into  the 
fire-box,  and  put  the  lid  on. 

3.  Turn  the  grate  over,  so  as  to  dump  the  ashes  into  the 
ash-pan.  (If  there  is  an  ash-sifter  in  the  range,  the  ashes 
will  fall  upon  this,  and  must  afterward  be  sifted  through  it 
into  the  pan.) 

Laying  the  fire.  —  4.   Lay  the  fire :  — 

a.  Fill  the  fire-box  one-third  full  of  shaving  or  wisps  of 
paper  twisted  in  the  middle  so  as  to  expose  a  large  surface 
to  the  air. 

b.  On  these  lay  small  sticks  of  soft  wood  or  "  kindling." 

c.  Put  two  shovelfuls  of  coal  on  top  of  the  wood. 

The  fuel  should  be  arranged  loosely  in  order  that  the 
air  may  have  free  passage  through  it. 

5.  Cover  the  top  of  the  range.  Open  all  the  dampers 
except  the  check  damper. 

Starting  the  fire.  —  6.  Light  the  fire  by  applying  a  lighted 


12      THEORY  AND  PRACTICE  OF  COOKERY 

match  between  the  bars  of  the  grate  to  the  paper  or  shavings 
inside.     (If  the  stove  is  to  be  blackened,  do  it  now.) 

7.  When  the  wood  is  all  ablaze,  add  coal  until  the  fire-box 
is  level  full.  (As  the  wood  burns  away  the  coal  will  settle. 
The  fire-box  should  never  be  kept  more  than  three-fourths 
full.) 

What  to  do  when  the  fire  is  well  started.  —  8.  When  the 
blue  flame  disappears,  close  the  oven  dampers,  and  half 
close  the  draft  slide.  When  the  coal  is  burning  well,  close 
the  draft  slide  entirely,  and  half  close  the  pipe  damper. 

HOW  TO  MANAGE  A   FIEE 

For  a  steady  hot  fire,  rake  out  the  ashes  with  a  poker  from 
beneath  the  grate ;  or,  if  the  grate  is  a  revolving  one,  give 
it  one  turn.  Fill  the  fire-box  three-fourths  full  of  coal.- 
Open  the  draft  slide  and  pipe  dampers.  See  that  oven 
and  check  dampers  are  closed.  When  the  coal  in  the  lower 
part  of  the  fire-box  is  glowing  red,  the  top  layer  still  black, 
and  the  flames  yellow,  close  the  dampers.  When  the  top 
layer  begins  to  glow,  add  more  coal,  so  that  there  will  always 
be  black  coals  on  top. 

To  check  the  fire  slightly,  open  the  slide  in  the  check 
damper.  To  check  it  decidedly,  open  the  check  damper 
itself.     All  other  dampers  must  be  closed. 

To  keep  a  fire  overnight.  —  Fill  the  fire-box  with  coal ; 
close  oven  and  pipe  dampers  and  draft  slide  and  open  the 
check  damper. 

To  heat  the  oven.  —  Close  the  oven  damper. 

Kindling-point.  —  Wliy  is  it,  with  active  oxygen  always 


PREPARATORY  LESSONS  13 

in  the  air,  ready  to  devour,  that  chairs,  tables,  houses,  do  not 
take  fire  and  burn?  Simply  because  a  substance  must  be 
heated  to  a  certain  degree  before  it  will  begin  to  unite  with 
oxygen.  Except  for  this,  everything  combustible  would 
have  burned  up  long  ago.  The  temperature  to  which  a 
substance  must  be  raised  before  it  will  burn  is  its  kindling- 
point.  This  point  differs  for  different  substances.  See  how 
we  take  advantage  of  this  fact  in  starting  a  fire.  We  first 
light  a  match,  the  phosphorus  ^  on  which  kindles  from  the 
friction  of  striking,  and  sets  on  fire  the  sulphur  mixed  with 
it,  which  has  a  somewhat  higher  kindling-point  than 
phosphorus.  The  phosphorus  in  turn  ignites  the  wood  of 
the  match,  the  kindling-point  of  which  is  higher  still.  Coal 
will  not  take  fire  from  a  match,  because  its  kindling-point 
is  so  high  that  the  match  burns  out  before  the  coal  becomes 
hot  enough  to  burn ;  but  paper  may  be  lighted  from  a  match, 
wood  from  burning  paper,  and  coal  from  burning  wood. 

To  start  a  fire  three  things  are  required :  oxygen,  fuel, 
and  some  means  of  raising  the  fuel  to  its  kindling-point. 

THE   GAS  RANGE 

Cooking  by  gas  is  easy  and  cleanly.  It  saves  space, 
unnecessary  heat,  and  with  care,  expense.  A  combination 
coal  and  gas  range  is  convenient  where  space  is  limited. 
For  combination  gas  range  and  fireless  cooker  see  p.  21. 

Parts  of  a  gas   range.  —  A  range   of   ordinary  size  has 

(l)  several  top  burners,  for  saucepans,  kettles,  etc.,  (2)  a 

^  Pure  phosphorus  burns,  though  slowly,  at  the  ordinary  temperature. 
It  must,  therefore,  be  kept  under  water. 


14      THEORY  AND  PRACTICE  OF  COOKERY 

baking  oven,  for  bread,  cake,  and  large  roasts,  (3)  a  broiling 
oven  with  rack  and  pan  for  steaks,  chops,  small  roasts,  toast, 
and  dishes  to  be  browned,  (4)  oven  burners,  situated 
inside  and  at  the  top  of  the  broiling  oven,  and  (5)  under  the 
baking  oven.  The  situation  of  the  ovens  and  the  arrange- 
ment of  the  oven  burners  vary  in  different  stoves.  Most 
ranges  have  one  small  top  burner,  called  a  simmering  burner. 
Some  have  an  extra  large  one,  a  giant  burner.  A  stove- 
pipe connected  with  a  flue  is  desirable.  A  gas  plate  and 
portable  oven  answers  for  simple  cooking.  A  stove  for 
natural  gas  has  the  top  burners  covered,  as  natural  gas  pro- 
duces smoke. 

A  gas-stove  burner  is  designed  to  get  as  much  heat  as 
possible  from  the  gas.  The  brightest  flame  is  not  the  hottest. 
Its  light  is  caused  by  bits  of  carbon  which  glow  but  do  not 
burn.  With  more  oxygen  this  carbon  will  burn,  making 
the  flame  blue,  sootless,  and  very  hot.  A  ^'  gas-cock " 
controls  the  flow  of  gas  to  each  burner.  Under  each  cock 
is  an  air-chamber  with  openings  to  admit  air.  If  there  is 
a  "  shutter  "  to  regulate  the  size  of  the  openings,  turn  it 
slowly  and  watch  the  flame.  When  just  enough  air  is 
entering,  the  flame  is  blue,  quiet,  and  steady.  The  '^  shut- 
ter "  rarely  needs  adjusting,  but  the  openings  must  be  kept 
clear.  The  cause  of  a  poor  flame  may  be  old  choked-up 
pipes,  not  poor  gas. 

To  manage  a  gas  range.  —  Learn  which  pipes  supply 
each  burner ;  learn  the  position  of  each  cock  when  open  and 
when  closed.  Before  lighting  a  burner,  see  that  all  burners 
are  tightly  closed  and  that  no  gas  is  escaping.     To  light  a 


PREPARATORY  LESSONS  15 

top  burner,  strike  a  match,  open  the  cock,  let  the  gas  flow 
for  two  or  three  seconds,  and  apply  lighted  match  or  taper 
at  back  of  burner.  Some  ranges  have  a  pilot-light  which 
may  be  kept  burning  constantly  for  8  cents  a  month, 
and  from  which  any  top  burner  may  be  lighted  by  pushing 
a  button.  Oven  burners  are  usually  lighted  by  a  pilot-light 
at  the  side  of  the  oven.  To  light  oven  burners,  open  both 
oven  doors,  strike  a  match,  open  the  pilot  cock,  and  light 
the  pilot-light  through  the  hole  from  the  outside.  Open  the 
back  oven  cock,  then  the  front  one.  Each  burner  will  light 
with  a  slight  explosive  sound.  When  both  are  burning, 
turn  off  the  pilot-light.  See  that  gas  burns  blue  the  whole 
length  of  burners.  If  the  gas  pops  and  burns  yellow  with  a 
roar,  it  has  "  struck  back  '^  and  is  burning  in  the  air  cham- 
ber. Turn  it  off  at  once,  let  it  flow  a  few  seconds,  and  re- 
light.    If  "  striking  back  "  occurs  often,  adjust  shutter. 

Light  the  baking  oven  from  five  to  ten  minutes  before 
using.  Two  minutes  after  lighting  it,  open  door  to  let 
moisture  out,  then  keep  it  closed.  After  lighting  the 
broiling  oven  close  the  door  until  the  oven  is  hot.  Leave 
door  open  while  food  is  in  the  broiling  oven.  It  will  brown 
better.  With  the  door  closed,  it  may  taste  smoky  or 
catch  fire  or  the  gas  may  go  out  for  lack  of  air. 

Care  of  gas  range.  —  Keep  drip  sheet  under  top  burners 
clean.  Keep  air-holes  clear.  Clean  holes  in  burners  with 
wire.  Remove  gratings  and  burners  occasionally  and  clean 
them  in  boiling  hot  washing  soda  solution.  (For  further 
care  see  p.  15.) 

To  cook  by  gas  safely,  successfully,  and  economically, 


16      THEORY  AND  PRACTICE  OF  COOKERY 

observe  these  rules.  1.  When  you  have  finished  using  a 
burner  turn  it  out  at  once.-^  2.  As  soon  as  water  or  food 
boils  or  reaches  the  desired  degree  of  heat,  lower  flame  or 
remove  utensil  to  simmering  burner.  Too  low  a  flame  may 
go  out.  If,  turned  higher,  it  gives  too  much  heat,  put  an 
asbestos  board  over  it.  3.  Use  a  heat  distributor,  an  iron 
sheet  which  spreads  heat  from  one  burner  to  several  utensils. 
The  right  kind  lets  air  pass  between  it  and  the  flame. 
4.  To  reduce  oven  heat,  lower  both  burners.  This  saves 
as  much  gas  as  turning  one  out  and  keeps  the  oven  more 
evenly  heated.  5.  Never  have  both  upper  and  lower 
burners  in  a  combination  broiling  and  baking  oven  going 
at  one  time.  The  upper  one  is  likely  to  go  out  for  lack  of  air. 
One  style  of  range  is  made  so  that  lighting  one  set  of  burners 
prevents  the  others  from  being  lighted. 

FUELS 

Anything  that  unites  readily  with  oxygen  may  be  used  as 
fuel.  Fuels  common  in  American  households  are  coal,  wood, 
coal-oil  (kerosene),  and  gas. 

The  story  of  coal.  —  Coal,  by  composition  and  structure, 

is  shown  to  be  of  plant  origin.     Leaves,  ferns,  bark,  whole 

tree  trunks  even,  have  been  found  turned  to  coal  in  mines. 

The  slow  process  of  decay  that  effected  this  change  took 

place  long  before  men  lived  on  the  earth,  at  a  time  when  the 

1  There  should  be  no  key  in  connecting  pipe  which  can  be  turned  by- 
hand.  If  there  is,  it  should  not  be  used  instead  of  turning  oock  to  shut 
off  gas  from  stove,  because  an  open  cock  may  be  overlooked,  and  when  the 
gas  is  again  turned  on  it  will  escape  from  this  cock.  In  this  way,  gas  may 
accumulate  in  the  oven  and  explode. 


PREPARATORY  LESSONS  17 

land  was  covered  with  thick  forests  different  from  any 
growing  now.  Many  trees  then  resembled  gigantic  ferns. 
Evidently  these  forests  were  flooded  from  time  to  time,  the 
trees  being  overthrown  and  buried  beneath  sand  washed  in 
by  the  water.  The  flood  subsiding,  a  new  forest  arose,  to 
be  in  turn  similarly  buried.  Pressure,  combined  with  heat 
greater  than  now  prevails  anywhere  on  earth,  slowly 
destroyed  everything  in  these  layers  of  plant-substance 
except  the  carbon,  and  left  them  as  seams  of  coal. 

Coal  works  for  us.  —  The  heat  of  burning  coal  may  be 
utilized  to  cook  food,  melt  iron,  make  steam  to  drive  engines, 
and  do  hundreds  of  other  kinds  of  work.  A  person  able  to 
work  is  said  to  have  energy.  Whence  comes  the  energy  of 
coal  ?  From  its  carbon.  But  the  carbon  in  the  plants  the 
coal  was  made  from  was  stored  up  by  the  help  of  the  sun. 
Plants  obtain  carbon  from  the  carbon  dioxide  in  the  air. 
They  can  do  this  only  in  the  light. 

The  heat  of  fires  comes  from  the  sun.  —  The  sun,  then, 
is  the  source  of  the  energy  in  coal ;  we  may  say  that  the 
sun  lights  our  fires.  Stephenson,  the  inventor  of  the  loco- 
motive, when  asked  what  drove  his  engine,  answered, 
^' Bottled-up  sunshine.'^  He  spoke  the  exact  truth;  the 
sun's  energy  is  stored  up  in  coal-mines  until,  with  pick 
and  blasting  powder,  man  sets  it  free. 

Hard  and  soft  coal ;   buying  coal.  —  Hard,  or  anthracite^ 

coal  is  the  result  of  almost  perfect  carbonization  of  wood ;  in 

soft,  or  hituminous,  coal  the  carbonizing  has  not  gone  so  far.^ 

^  Wood  contains  about  50%  of  carbon,  bituminous  coal  about  77%, 
anthracite  about  90  %.  All  coal  contains  sulphur.  Charcoal  is  wood  car- 
bonized by  burning  it  with  just  enough  air  to  char  it,  but  not  consume  it. 


18      THEORY  AND  PRACTICE  OF  COOKERY 

The  latter  is  crumbly  and  dull,  and  burns  with  much  smoke. 
Which  yields  the  more  heat ;  i.e.,  has  the  more  energy, 
hard  or  soft  coal  ?  Hard  coal  is  best  for  household  use,  but 
as  it  is  mined  chiefly  in  the  Atlantic  states,  in  many  parts 
of  the  country  it  is  too  expensive  to  be  used.  A  good 
quality  is  jet  black  and  glossy,  breaks  into  roughly  cube- 
shaped  pieces,  is  free  from  slate,  and  yields  little  clinker. 
For  a  stove  with  a  small  fire-box,  use  chestnut  coal ;  for  most 
ranges  a  mixture  of  stove  and  chestnut  is  desirable.  Too 
small  coal  will  fall  between  the  bars  of  the  grate  before 
being  burned.  It  is  prudent  to  buy  a  yearns  supply  of  coal 
in  summer,  when  it  is  cheapest ;  coal  bought  by  the  pound  or 
basket  costs  about  three  times  as  much  as  if  bought  by  the 
ton. 

How  to  save  coal  and  gain  heat.  —  Coal  burns  at  first  with 
a  blue  flame,  but  when  thoroughly  afire,  with  a  clear,  red 
glow.  When  white-hot,  almost  all  its  heat-giving  power 
has  been  exhausted.  A  good  coal  fire  consists  of  a  mass  of 
red  coals  covered  by  a  layer  of  black  ones  heating  and  ready 
to  kindle  when  the  red  ones  die  out.  More  heat  is  obtained 
from  the  same  quantity  of  coal  by  adding  it  to  the  fire  a 
little  at  a  time  than  by  putting  it  on  all  at  once. 

By  the  first  method  the  coal  gets  sufficient  air  to  be  burned 
to  carbon  dioxide  (CO2) ;  by  the  second,  much  of  it  is  burned 
to  carbon  monoxide  (CO).  Thus  it  takes  up  only  half  as 
much  oxygen  as  it  is  capable  of  uniting  with,  and  so  pro- 
duces less  heat. 

Other  fuels. — Kerosene,  or  coal-oil,  prepared  from  the 
mineral  oil  petroleum,  is  the  cheapest  household  fuel,  and 


PREPARATORY  LESSONS  19 

is  safe  when  it  is  of  good  quality  and  is  burned  in  stoves 
intended  for  it.  Never  use  kerosene  to  kindle  a  wood  or  coal 
fire.  When  heated,  it  gives  off  vapor  that  in  contact  with 
fire  is  Hkely  to  explode. 

Natural  gas,  used  for  heating  and  lighting,  flows  from  the 
ground.  Both  it  and  coal-oil  are  believed  to  be  of  vegetable 
origin.  What  is  the  source  of  their  energy?  Two  kinds 
of  gas  are  manufactured  for  lighting  and  heating  purposes. 
Coal-gas  is  made  by  heating  soft  coal  in  a  closed  retort. 
Water-gas  is  made  by  passing  steam  over  white-hot  coke 
or  anthracite  coal. 

A  soft  coal  fire  needs  little  draft  below,  but  some  on  top 
to  carry  off  the  smoke  and  gas.  It  must  be  fed  often  and 
is  hard  to  keep  overnight.  Some  soft  coal  cokes  as  it  burns. 
Break  up  the  crust  to  keep  the  draft  free. 

Wood  burns  best  with  a  wider  grate  than  is  needed  for 
coal.  It  gives  a  quick  heat,  but  more  wood  must  be  added 
often  to  keep  the  heat  steady. 

Distillate  oil,  used  in  the  southwest  where  wood  and  coal 
are  scarce,  is  a  heavy  coal-oil.  The  distillate  burner  fits 
into  the  fire-box  of  any  range.  It  gives  intense  heat  and  is 
safe. 

THE    FIRELESS    COOKER 

A  fireless  cooker  is  a  contrivance  for  completing  the  cook- 
ing of  food  by  retaining  in  it  the  heat  received  from  a  short 
cooking  over  a  fire.  It  consists  of  a  box  with  a  hinged  lid, 
containing  mineral  wool  or  other  non-conductor  of  heat 
packed  so  as  to  fit  around  one  or  more  cooking  utensils.  Hay, 
sawdust,  or  crumpled  newspaper  is  often  used  for  packing 


20      THEORY  AND  PRACTICE  OF  COOKERY 

in  home-made  fireless  cookers.  The  fireless  cooker  not 
only  saves  fuel,  but  saves  time  and  trouble  by  making  it 
possible  to  leave  the  food  to  cook  without  attention  from 
morning  till  dinner-time  or  overnight.  It  is  most  satis- 
factory for  foods  which  need  long,  slow  cooking,  which  are 
not  hurt  by  over-cooking,  and  which  need  not  be  crisp  and 
brown,  such  as  cereals,  soups  and  stews,  beans,  boiled  ham, 
and  all  dishes  which  may  properly  be  steamed.  Water 
can  be  kept  hot  in  it.  A  fireless  cooker  is  used  most  eco- 
nomically when  gas  or  oil  is  used  to  start  the  cooking. 

Directions  for  using  fireless  cooker.  —  The  pail  covers 
must  fit  tight  and  the  pails  must  fit  the  nests.  The  pads,  if 
used,  must  fill  the  space  between  the  box-lid  and  the  top 
of  the  pails.  The  pail  should  be  nearly  full  of  food.  If  the 
quantity  is  too  small,  put  it  into  a  pan  or  small  cooking- 
utensil  made  for  the  purpose  which  fits  into  or  over  the  rim 
of  the  pail ;  and  cook  some  other  food  in  the  pail,  or  fill  the 
pail  with  hot  water.     The  pan  must  be  tightly  covered. 

Have  the  cooker  near  the  stove.  Let  the  food  begin  to 
cook  in  the  dish  in  which  it  is  to  go  into  the  cooker.  Liquids 
and  foods  in  particles  need  only  be  brought  to  the  boiling 
point.  Foods  in  larger  masses  must  be  boiled  from  five  to 
ten  minutes  to  heat  them  through.  Open  the  cooker  before 
taking  the  food  from  the  fire.  Cover  the  dishes,  after  placing 
one  inside  another  if  necessary. 

Put  them  quickly  into  the  cooker,  put  on  the  pads,  close 
and  fasten  the  lid  at  once.  Keep  closed  till  food  is  to  be 
served.  If  opened,  the  food  must  be  re-heated  to  boiling 
and  put  back. 


PREPARATORY  LESSONS  21 

Fireless  cookers  may  be  bought  fitted  with  aluminum 
utensils  and  soapstone  or  metal  plates  to  be  heated  and 
placed  on  and  under  the  utensils.  With  these  plates,  food 
can  be  baked  on  a  rack  or  roasted  in  a  utensil. 

A  combination  gas  range  and  fireless  cooker  is  now  on 
the  market.  The  oven  is  surrounded  by  non-conducting 
material  so  that  after  the  food  has  begun  to  cook  the  gas 
may  be  turned  off  and  the  cooking  completed  in  the  oven 
without  applying  more  heat.  One  of  the  top  burners,  set 
above  a  soapstone  slab,  has  a  hood  which  converts  it  into 
a  second  smaller  fireless  cooker. 

Cooking  by  electricity  is  the  most  convenient  of  all  methods, 
and  the  least  wasteful  of  heat.  With  proper  wiring  there  is 
no  danger  from  fire.  The  current  is  either  conveyed  directly 
to  each  utensil  or  to  a  disk  on  which  the  utensil  is  placed. 
There  is  no  fuel  to  be  handled,  no  waste  products  to  be  re- 
moved. The  heat  is  easily  controlled.  Electric  toasters 
and  chafing-dishes  are  seen  upon  many  tables.  But  the 
apparatus,  and  in  many  places  the  current,  is  too  expensive 
to  be  generally  used.  We  may  look  forward,  however,  to 
the  time  when  the  cost  shall  be  so  reduced  that  cooking  by 
electricity  will  be  common. 

Brief  Reference  List 

For  further  development  of  topics  treated  in  this  section 
see :  — 

Snell:  Elementary  household  chemistry.     Ch.  9,  10,  11,  and  12. 
Snyder  :  Chemistry  of  plant  and  animal  life. 
Lassar-Cohn:  Chemistry  in  daily  life.    Lectures  1  and  2. 


22      THEORY  AND  PRACTICE  OF  COOKERY 

Earle  :  Home  lije  in  colonial  days.     Ch.  3,  The  kitchen  fireside. 

KiNNE  AND  Cooley:  Foods  and  household  management.      Ch.  3,  Fuels 

and  stoves. 
Morgan  and  Lyman:  Chemistry. 
Green  :  Coal  and  the  coal-mines. 
White  :  Fuels  of  the  household. 

Section  2.   Water 

Water  in  nature.  —  Water  exists  not  only  in  the  ocean 
and  in  other  bodies  of  water,  but  in  plants,  in  the  bodies  of 
men  and  animals,  and  even  in  rocks  and  other  things  that 
seem  quite  dry.  Air  contains  water;  some  fruits  consist 
of  little  but  water  and  flavoring,  with  just  enough  solid 
matter  to  give  them  form;  our  bodies  are  about  three- 
fifths  water. 

Water  is  called  "  the  universal  carrier.''  It  carries  soil 
from  place  to  place,  piling  in  valleys  what  it  washes  away  from 
hills ;  it  bears  seeds  from  one  shore  to  plant  them  on  another. 
It  is  the  water  in  sap  that  enables  it  to  flow  through  plants, 
carrying  material  to  build  them  up ;  it  is  the  water  in  blood 
that  enables  it  to  do  the  same  for  the  animal  body. 

Water  as  a  solvent.  —  A  substance  so  mixed  with  a 
liquid  that  its  particles  cannot  be  seen  and  do  not  settle  is 
dissolved,  or  in  solution.  Water  dissolves  more  substances 
than  any  other  liquid  To  this  property  it  owes  much  of 
its  carrying  power. 

Experiments  in  solubility.  —  A.  Put  a  level  teaspoonful  of  salt  into  a 
glass  of  cold  water.  When  the  salt  has  disappeared  taste  the  water. 
Put  another  teaspoonful  into  hot  water.  In  which  does  the  salt  disappear 
more  quickly?    Try  the  same  experiment  with  powdered  chalk. 


PREPARATORY  LESSOxNS  23 

B.  Find  out  which  dissolves  faster,  a  whole  lump  of  sugar,  or  a  lump 
broken  into  bits ;  coarse  or  fine  salt. 

C.  Boil  some  of  the  salt  solution  till  the  water  is  all  gone ;  taste  the 
residue,  and  teU  what  it  is.^ 

Salt  is  soluble  in  water ;  chalk  is  insoluble  in  water.  Hot 
water  dissolves  salt  more  quickly  than  cold  water  does; 
that  is,  it  is  a  better  solvent  for  it.  The  more  finely  divided 
a  substance  is  the  more  rapidly  it  dissolves.     Why? 

Pure  water ;  impurities,  organic  and  inorganic.  —  Clean 
water  is  colorless,  odorless,  and  nearly  tasteless.  Its  slight 
taste  comes  from  various  substances  dissolved  in  it.  One 
of  these  is  air.  If  a  glass  of  water  stands  until  the  air  in  it 
appears  in  bubbles  on  the  glass,  it  is  found  to  taste  '^  flat.^' 
Absolutely  pure  water  has  no  taste.  Such  water  is  not  found 
in  nature.  That  most  nearly  pure  is  the  rain-water  that  falls 
during  the  latter  part  of  a  shower.  The  first  rain  to  fall 
carries  down  with  it  dust  and  other  impurities  from  the  air. 
As  water  flows  over  or  soaks  through  the  ground,  it  dissolves 
both  organic  matter  of  plant  and  animal  origin  and  inorganic 
matter   of  mineral   origin. 

Living  things,  plants  or  animals,  differ  from  lifeless  things, 
in  being  able  to  feed,  grow,  and  reproduce  themselves. 
Organs  were  once  supposed  to  be  necessary  for  these  acts ; 
and,  in  consequence,  things  once  part  of  an  animal  or  a  plant, 
as  well  as  things  actually  alive,  were  termed  organic.  Though 
we  now  know  that  some  tiny  living  things  have  no  organs, 
we  still  use  the  words  organic  and  inorganic  to  distinguish 

1  Sugar  cannot  be  recovered  from  solution  by  boiling  in  the  open  air ; 
it  burns  before  it  becomes  solid.  It  may  be  recovered  by  crystallization, 
which  we  shall  learn  about  in  Chapter  IX. 


24      THEORY  AND  PRACTICE  OF  COOKERY 

these  two  kinds  of  matter.  Examples  of  inorganic  matter : 
water,  sand,  carbon  dioxide.  Examples  of  organic  matter : 
wood,  perspiration,  leaf-mold,  manure. 

Drinking  water  should  be  pure.  —  Much  organic  matter 
in  drinking  water  makes  it  unwholesome,  and  may  make  it 
dangerous.  Most  objectionable  of  organic  impurities  is 
sewage,  which  is  likely  to  contain  disease  germs.  Wells 
are  often  dug  for  convenience  near  houses.  Such  a  well  may 
be  polluted  by  house  and  stable  waste.  Rivers  and  lakes 
may  be  polluted  by  factory  waste  and  sewage  from  towns. 
Neither  such  water  nor  ice  cut  from  it  is  safe  to  use. 

Spring  water  and  water  from  artesian  wells  is  usually  pure. 
City  water,  if  not  from  pure  sources,  should  be  filtered 
through  sand  beds.  Filters  of  chargoal  or  porcelain  for 
household  use  must  be  kept  clean,  or  they  soon  become  filled 
with  impurities,  making  the  water  passed  through  them 
foul  instead  of  purer.  Small  filters  screwed  on  faucets 
remove  sediment  but  not  bacteria  (p.  30).  Drinking 
water  about  the  purity  of  which  there  is  any  doubt  should  be 
boiled. 

Hard  and  soft  water.  —  Water  is  called  hard  or  soft 
according  to  whether  it  contains  much  or  little  of  the 
mineral  calcium  (lime).  Neither  dirt  nor  soap  dissolves 
readily  in  hard  water.  Soap  forms  with  it  a  curdy  sub- 
stance. Some  hard  water  becomes  soft  if  boiled.  Boil- 
ing makes  the  calcium  insoluble  and  it  is  deposited  on  the 
inside  of  the  kettle.  (See  if  there  is  such  a  deposit  on  the 
school-kitchen  tea-kettle,  or  on  your  kettle  at  home.)  Such 
water    is    called   temporarily   hard  water.     In  permanently 


PREPARATORY  LESSONS 


25 


hard  water  the  calcium  is  in  a  different  form.  Boiling  does 
not  affect  it.  For  cleaning  and  laundry  purposes  perma- 
nently hard  water  should  be  softened  by  the  addition  of 
washing  soda  or  ammonia.  A  moderate  degree  of  hardness 
does  not  injure  water  for  drinking  purposes.  As  a  rule  soft 
water  is  desirable  for  cooking,  especially  when  the  object  is 
to  draw  out  flavor  or  nourishment  from  food,  as  in  making 
soup  or  tea. 


A   STUDY   OF   THE   EFFECT   OF   HEAT   ON   WATER 

Experiment.  —  Put  some  water  in  a  saucepan  or  other  vessel.  Take 
its  temperature  with  a  thermometer.  Set  it  on  the  stove  or  over  a  Bunsen 
burner,  and  hold  the  thermometer  so 
that  its  bulb  is  below  the  surface  of  the 
water,  but  not  touching  the  bottom  of 
the  vessel.  (Fig.  2.)  .  Watch  the  sides 
and  bottom  of  the  saucepan. 

Are  the  bubbles  large  or  small  at 
first?  after  a  little  while?  What  comes 
off  from  the  surface  of  the  water?  Note 
the  temperature  of  the  water.  Note  it 
again  when  the  bubbles  begin  to  break 
at  the  surface.  Does  the  mercury  rise 
after  this?  Increase  the  heat.  Can 
you  make  the  water  any  hotter? 


Fig.  2. 


Effect  of  heat  on  water,  boil- 
ing-point of  water. — When  water 
is  heated  the  air  dissolved  in  it  expands,  forming  tiny 
bubbles.  These  rise,  until  the  cold  water  near  the  surface 
chills  them ;  then  they  contract,  and  sink  again.  When 
all  the  water  has  become  warm  they  rise  and  escape. 
By  this  time  the  heat  is  beginning  to  change  the  water  into 


26      THEORY  AND  PRACTICE  OF  COOKERY 

steam,  an  invisible  gas.^  The  word  vapor  is  applied  to  gases 
that  under  ordinary  circumstances  are  liquid.  Steam, 
therefore,  is  water-vapor. 

Soon  steam-bubbles  appear.  These  are  larger  than  air- 
bubbles.  As  they  approach  the  surface  of  the  water, 
they  are  cooled,  and  condensed ;  i.e.,  turned  back  to  water. 
This  bubbling  below  the  surface  is  called  simmering.^  The 
temperature  of  the  water  is  now  about  185°  F.  As  the  water 
grows  hotter,  some  of  the  bubbles  reach  the  surface  and 
break  there,  giving  off  clouds  of  steam.  Now,  for  the  first 
time,  the  water  boils.  Its  temperature  is  212°  F.  By  in- 
creasing the  heat  the  water  may  be  made  to  boil  faster,  but 
it  will  not  grow  hotter.  All  the  heat  is  now  being  used  in 
turning  water  into  steam.  If  boiled  long  enough,  all  the 
water  turns  to  steam  and  disappears  in  the  air.  If  steam 
be  cooled,  by  coming  against  a  cover  for  instance,  it  gives 
up  its  heat  and  becomes  water  again. 

The  weight  of  air  pressing  on  the  surface  of  water  prevents 
the  steam  from  escaping  until  it  gains  force  enough  to  over- 
come this  pressure.  At  the  sea  level  water  boils  at  exactly 
212°,  but  on  a  high  mountain  at  a  temperature  several  degrees 
lower.  If  the  steam  be  confined,  water  may  be  raised 
above  212° ;   for  the  air  under  the  lid  soon  takes  up  all 

1  Real  steam  is  invisible,  the  mist  we  call  steam  being  steam  partially 
condensed.  The  slow  forming  of  water-vapor  that  takes  place  at  ordi- 
nary temperatures,  in  the  drying  of  clothes,  the  disappearance  of  water 
after  a  rain,  and  the  like,  is  called  evaporation. 

2  In  cooking,  it  is  sometimes  important  to  keep  water  simmering ; 
at  other  times  necessary  to  have  it  boiling.  Learn  to  distinguish  between 
these.  When  steam  comes  in  jets  from  the  spout  of  a  teakettle,  the  water 
boils. 


PREPARATORY  LESSONS  27 

the  vapor  it  can  hold,  making  it  impossible  for  any  more 
water  to  be  changed  into  steam.  The  heat  that  would 
otherwise  be  used  in  making  steam  is  now  saved  and  makes 
the  water  hotter.  Steam  under  pressure  may  also  be 
raised  to  a  temperature  higher  than  212°  F.  Such  steam 
is  called  superheated.  Superheated  steam  is  utilized  in 
canning-processes.     (P.  302.) 

Effect  of  cold  on  water.  —  At  32°  F.  water  freezes  and  be- 
comes ice.  At  32°  ice  melts  and  forms  water.  By  heat- 
ing ice,  it  may  in  a  few  minutes  be  changed  to  water  and 
from  water  to  steam.  Do  you  know  of  anything  else 
that  is  changed  from  solid  to  liquid  and  from  liquid  to  gas, 
by  heat  ? 

Solids,  liquids,  and  gases.  —  The  particles  of  which  a 
solid  is  composed  hold  firmly  together ;  those  of  a  liquid  hold 
loosely;  those  of  a  gas  tend  always  to  go  farther  apart. 
Heat  separates  particles  of  matter ;  the  loss  of  heat  causes 
them  to  draw  together  again. ^  Hence  we  say,  "  Heat 
expands,  cold  contracts."  Hot  air  rises,  because  by  expand- 
ing it  becomes  thinner  and  lighter. 

Composition  of  water.  —  Water  is  composed  of  hydrogen 
and  oxygen.  In  what  experiment  was  water  formed? 
Where  did  the  hydrogen  come  from  ?     the  oxygen  ? 

SOME   FACTS  ABOUT   WATER  TO   BE   REMEMBERED 

1.  A  solid  dissolved  in  water  will,  in  most  cases,  be  found 
at  the  bottom  of  the  vessel  after  the  water  has  evaporated 
or  boiled  away. 

1  Exception.  —  Water  expands  just  before  it  freezes ;  hence  the  burst- 
ing of  pipes. 


28      THEORY  AND  PRACTICE  OF  COOKERY 

2.  Boiling  expels  air  from  water,  making  it  taste  "flat.'' 
Boiled  water  should  be  poured  back  and  forth  several  times 
from  one  pitcher  to  another,  or  shaken  in  a  large  bottle,  to 
restore  its  flavor. 

3.  Temporarily  hard  water  may  be  made  soft  by  boiling. 

4.  Impure  water  may  be  made  safe  for  use  by  boiling. 

5.  Since,  by  ordinary  means,  water  cannot  be  made 
hotter  after  it  begins  to  boil,  fuel  is  wasted  in  keeping  up 
more  fire  than  is  required  just  to  keep  the  water  at  the  boil- 
ing-point. 

6.  By  covering  the  vessel  some  of  the  steam  is  condensed, 
and  heat  is  saved. 

Water  in  relation  to  health.  —  Drinking  freely  of  pure 
water  makes  for  health.  The  water  we  drink  or  take  in  as 
part  of  our  food  aids  digestion,  conveys  nourishment  to  all 
parts  of  the  body,  removes  waste,  and  in  other  ways  keeps 
the  body  in  order.  Large  quantities  of  cold  water  should 
not  be  drunk  when  one  is  overheated ;  nor  should  water  or 
any  other  liquid  be  used  to  wash  down  half-chewed  food. 

But  remember  to  take  a  drink  of  water  several  times  a 
day. 

Ice.  —  Good  ice  is  clear  and  clean.  Snow-ice  looks  white 
and  melts  too  fast.  Artificial  ice  is  purest,  because  it  is 
made  from  distilled  water.  The  best  way  to  cool  drinking- 
water  is  to  put  ice  around  it,  not  in  it. 

Brief  Reference  List 

For  further  development  of  topics  treated  in  this  section 
see :  — 


PREPARATORY  LESSONS  29 

Morgan  and  Lyman  :  Chemistry.    Pp.  66-74. 

Snell:  Elementary  household  chemistry.     Ch.  22,   Hard  water.     Other 

scattered  passages. 
Elliott  :  Household  hygiene. 
DoDD  :  Chemistry  of  the  household. 

Thorpe  :  Dictionary  of  applied  chemistry.    Ch.  5,  p.  684. 
Buchanan  :  Household  bacteriology.     Ch.  40,  Water  contamination. 
Conn  :  Bacteria,  yeasts,  and  molds  in  the  home. 


Section  3.   Cleanliness  and  Cleaning 

Pure  air  and  pure  water  we  have  seen  to  be  simply  clean 
air  and  clean  water.  The  importance  of  cleanliness  is  better 
understood  than  ever  before,  now  that  scientists  have 
shown  the  close  relation  between  dirt  and  disease.  The  dirt 
that  shows  most  plainly  may  not  be  the  most  objectionable. 
A  dusty  chair  is  of  much  less  consequence  than  an  unclean 
dish-cloth. 

Two  kinds  of  dust :  lifeless  and  living.  —  The  dirt  in 
houses  consists  for  the  most  part  of  dust,  both  alone  and 
mixed  with  grease  (fatty  matter),  moisture,  and  sticky  sub- 
stances. Dust  is  earth  or  other  matter  in  particles  so  fine 
that  it  can  be  raised  and  carried  by  the  wind.  Dust  is 
everywhere  present.  We  see  how  quickly  it  gathers  on  the 
floor  and  the  furniture ;  a  sunbeam  shows  us  that  the  air 
is  full  of  it.  This  visible  dust  was  for  a  long  time  the  only 
kind  known  about.  It  has  been  discovered,  however,  that 
mixed  with  visible  dust  is  another  kind,  so  fine  that  it  can 
be  seen  only  with  a  microscope.  This  invisible  dust  is  com- 
posed of  tiny  plants.  When  enough  plants  are  growing  to- 
gether they  can  be  seen  with  the  naked  eye. 


30 


THEORY  AND  PRACTICE  OF  COOKERY 


Experiment.  —  Expose  a  piece  of  bread  or  cheese  or  some  cooked  fruit 
to  the  air  for  a  few  days,  covering  it  to  keep  it  moist.  What  appears  on 
the  surface? 

Examine  this  growth  with  a  magnifying-glass  or  microscope. 


Fig.  3.  —  Two  kinds  of  mold  often  found  on  food. 

These  microscopic  plants  are  of  three  kinds,  molds, 
yeasts  J  and  bacteria  (singular  hacterium,  rarely  used).  We 
shall  learn  more  about  yeast  in  Chapter  IV  (pp.  128-132). 

Bacteria  the  most  objectionable  kind  jof  dust.  —  Some 
kinds  of  bacteria,  if  they  enter  the  body  where  conditions 
are  favorable  for  their  growth,  may  cause  disease.  Other 
kinds  cause  food  to  spoil.  Bacteria  thrive  best  in  dark, 
damp,  moderately  warm  places,  where  organic  matter  is 
present.  Anything  that  kills  bacteria  or  hinders  their 
growth  is  called  a  disinfectant.  We  shall  learn  more 
about  bacteria  in  Chapter  III  (pp.  97,  100)  and  in  Chapter 
X  (Sec.  1). 

Light,  air,  and  water  natural  cleansers.  —  Light  promotes 
cleanliness  by  revealing  dirt  and  destroying  bacteria. 
Direct  sunlight  destroys  bacteria.     Wind  may  bring  dust, 


PREPARATORY  LESSONS  31 

but  a  current  of  air  removes  smoke,  foul  air,  and  greasy 
or  watery  vapors,  which  combine  with  dust  to  deposit  an 
unclean  film.  Water  is  the  great  cleanser,  because  it  is  the 
great  solvent.  Open  windows  and  bHnds  and  an  abundant 
water-supply  are  "  first  aids  '^  to  cleanliness. 

TOOLS   AND   MATERIALS    FOR    CLEANING 

The  necessary  cleaning-tools  for  a  kitchen,  aside  from 
those  used  for  dishes  and  the  sink,  are  broom,  dust-pan  and 
short  broom,  scrubbing-brush,  floor-cloths  and  other  cleaning 
cloths.  Get  a  well-made  broom,  not  too  heavy.  The  dust- 
pan should  have  a  strip  across  it  in  front  of  the  handle  to 
keep  dust  from  flying  back.  Hemmed  cheesecloth  squares 
make  the  best  dusters  for  general  use.  Coarse,  loose-woven 
stuff  is  best  for  floor-cloths,  soft  cloths  for  paint.  The 
scrubbing-brush  should  be  of  a  size  and  shape  to  be  easily 
grasped  by  the  hand  that  is  to  wield  it. 

Labor-savers.  — A  dust-mop  is  convenient.  "  Dustless '' 
mops  and  dusters  are  treated  with  a  chemical  which  makes 
dust  cling  to  them  instead  of  flying  about.  Avoid  wet 
mopping  if  possible.  A  wet  mop  is  hard  to  dry  and  to 
keep  clean.  A  long-handled  dust-pan  saves  stooping.  The 
housewife  or  houseworker  should  have  labor-saving  tools  as 
well  as  the  farmer,  the  mechanic,  or  the  business  man.  A 
vacuum  cleaner  does  the  work  of  brushes,  brooms,  and 
cloths,  and  does  it  better,  because  it  draws  out  and  sucks 
up  dust,  scraps,  and  loose  stuff.  Although  of  especial  value 
in  rooms  containing  draperies,  stuffed  furniture,  and  carpets, 
its  service  is  desirable  in  a  kitchen,  where  dust  should  not 
be  raised. 


32      THEORY  AND  PRACTICE  OF  COOKERY 

Friction.  Abrasives.  —  Brushes  and  cloths  produce  fric- 
tion, which  is  necessary  for  removing  spots  and  dirt  that 
sticks  or  is  ingrained.  Powdered  minerals,  such  as  whiting, 
bath  brick,  rottenstone,  sand,  and  various  silicious  materials, 
increase  friction  and  in  some  cases  give  polish. 

CHEMICAL  CLEANSERS 

Soap.  How  it  cleans.  —  It  is  often  hard  to  clean  and  polish 
by  main  force,  with  the  aid  of  water,  tools,  and  abrasives 
only.  What  do  we  depend  upon  to  "  start  the  dirt  "  ?  Soap. 
And  why  does  soap  clean  so  easily  and  quickly?  because  it 
acts  chemically.  Water  decomposes  soap,  setting  alkali 
free.  Alkali  decomposes  the  grease  which  is  usually 
mingled  with  dirt,  and  so  loosens  the  dirt.  It  forms  with 
grease  a  compound  soluble  in  water.  Soapsuds  emulsifies 
grease ;  that  is,  it  holds  it  suspended  in  particles.  Soap 
may  also  act  chemically  in  other  ways  on  some  kinds  of  dirt. 

Soap  is  made  out  of  fat  or  oil  and  an  alkali  (pp.  57, 108). 
The  alkali  used  in  soap-factories  is  a  soda  compound.  In  a 
well-made  soap,  no  fat  nor  alkali  is  left  uncombined.  An 
excess  of  alkali  injures  paint,  fabrics,  and  the  skin.  All  soaps 
contain  water.  Some  cheap  soaps  contain  so  much  water 
that  it  does  not  pay  to  buy  them.  Others  are  adulterated 
with  material  that  weighs,  but  does  not  clean.  White  soaps 
are  usually  pure.  Floating  soap  is  made  light  by  having  air 
beaten  into  it  while  it  is  hot  and  soft.  Such  soap  dissolves 
faster  than  heavier  soaps.  Fresh  soap  also  dissolves  fast, 
because  it  is  moist.  It  is  well  to  unwrap  it  and  pile  it 
loosely  to  dry.     (For  laundry-soaps,  see  p.  360.) 


PREPARATORY  LESSONS  33 

Alkalies.  —  Three  alkalies,  sal-soda,  commonly  called 
washing  soda,  borax,  and  ammonia,  are  used  in  cleaning. 
Washing  soda  is  the  strongest  of  these.  It  comes  in  crystals, 
but  it  is  better  to  use  a  solution.  Dissolve  one  pound  of 
washing  soda  in  one  quart  of  water  in  a  saucepan  over  the 
fire.  Wlien  it  is  cool,  put  it  in  a  bottle  and  label  it  sal-soda 
solution.  Do  not  let  it  touch  the  hands.  It  will  make  the 
skin  sore.  When  needed,  pour  a  little  into  the  water  to  be 
used  for  washing  or  cleaning. 

Scouring  soaps.  —  Soap  powders  consist  of  washing  soda 
and  powdered  soap.  They  may  contain  much  water,  and 
in  general  are  not  worth  their  price.  Sand-soap  is  what  its 
name  implies,  a  mixture  of  soap  and  fine  sand.  It  is  less  used 
than  formerly.  Modern  scouring  soaps  and  powders  contain 
some  gritty  mineral  and  soap.     Some  contain  sal-soda  also. 

Petroleum  cleansers.  —  Kerosene,  gasoline,  naphtha,  ben- 
zine, all  products  of  petroleum,  are  valuable  cleansers. 
Kerosene  is  especially  useful  for  cleaning  things  which  alkalies 
would  injure,  for  example,  polished  wood.  The  other  three 
dissolve  grease,  but  are  dangerously  explosive,  and  as  a  rule 
unsafe  to  use  indoors. 

Disinfectants.  —  Soap,  alkalies,  and  kerosene  are  all 
good  disinfectants.  A  more  powerful  disinfectant,  not  a 
cleanser,  is  chloride  of  lime. 

CLEANING  METALS 

Experiments.  —  A.  Let  a  piece  of  iron  lie  wet  in  the  air  for  several 
hours.  Pour  a  little  water  into  an  old  worn  tin  dish ;  allow  a  few  drops  of 
water  to  fall  on  a  steel  knife-blade;   and  let  dish  and  knife  lie  for  some 


34      THEORY  AND  PRACTICE  OF  COOKERY 

time.    What  do  you  observe?    Has  the  tin  rusted?    How  can  we  kei 
steel  from  rusting? 

B.  Lay  one  silver  spoon  next  to  a  rubber  band.    Wrap  another 
white  flannel.     Lay  a  bright  brass  button  in  a  dry  place.    Wrap  anoth 
in  damp  cloth.     Examine  all  these  after  a  day  or  two.    Would  y< 
approve  of  keeping  silver  wrapped  in  white  flannel?    What  effect  h 
dampness  on  brass? 

Rust  and  tarnish.  —  Rust  is  a  compound,  formed  in  tl 
presence  of  moisture,  by  the  union  of  the  oxygen  of  the  a 
with  iron  or  steel.  Rust  scales  off,  and  more  forms.  Th\ 
the  metal  is  eaten  away.  Rust  must  be  prevented.  1 
do  this,  keep  steel  utensils  polished,  iron  ones  dry  an 
smooth.  Tarnish  is  a  discoloration  of  polished  meta 
caused  by  the  action  of  oxygen,  sulphur,  or  some  oth( 
element  upon  the  metal.  The  sulphur  used  in  making  rubb( 
and  in  bleaching  cloth,  and  the  sulphurous  gases  from  burnin 
coal  or  gas,  form  with  silver  a  grayish  black  compound  ii 
soluble  in  water. 

C.  Try  to  remove  the  tarnish  from  silver  with  whiting,  with  alcoho 
from  brass  with  rottenstone,  with  rottenstone  and  water,  with  rottenstoi 
and  oil,  with  vinegar  or  lemon- juice.  Compare  the  effectiveness  of  tl 
various  materials. 

Removal  of  tarnish.  —  Acids  act  chemically  on  tarnisl 
dissolving  it.  Oxalic  acid,  lemon-juice,  and  vinegar  may  t 
used.  But,  except  for  spots,  it  is  best  to  rely  mostly  upo 
powders  in  cleaning  metals.  A  chemical  that  removes  th 
tarnish  may  attack  the  metal.  For  example,  any  chemicj 
that  brightens  zinc,  eats  into  it.  If  acid  is  used  on  any  meta 
all  traces  of  it  must  be  removed  by  rubbing  with  powde: 
or  the  tarnish  will  quickly  reappear.     Oil  or  water,  mixe 


PREPARATORY  LESSONS  35 

with    the   powder,    forms    a    paste    easy   to    apply.      Use 
chamois-skin  or  soft  cloth  for  polishing. 

CARE   OF  FLOOR  AND  WOODWORK 

Care  of  kitchen  floor.  —  A  linoleum-covered  floor  is  the 
most  easily  kept  clean.  Next  best  is  a  hard-wood  floor. 
Wipe  or  brush  up  at  once  anything  spilled.  Cover  grease- 
spots  on  wood  or  stone  with  flour,  starch,  or  powdered  chalk, 
which  will  absorb  the  grease.  Cold  water  poured  upon 
grease  as  soon  as  it  is  spilled  will  harden  it ;  the  greater 
part  may  then  be  scraped  off.  Sweep  the  kitchen  floor 
thoroughly  once  a  day.  With  care  it  will  not  need  washing 
or  scrubbing  oftener  than  once  a  week. 

How  to  sweep.  —  Before  beginning  to  sweep,  see  that  no 
food  is  left  uncovered  in  the  room.  Sweep  from  the  edge 
of  the  room  toward  the  centre.  Sweep  with  short  strokes, 
keeping  the  broom  close  to  the  floor.  Turn  it  edgewise  to 
clean  cracks.  When  the  dust  has  been  gathered  at  one  spot, 
take  it  up  with  a  short  broom  and  a  dust-pan,  and,  if  possible, 
burn  it  at  once.  Never  sweep  dust  from  one  room  into 
another.  Always  sweep  a  floor  before  washing  or  scrub- 
bing it. 

How  to  scrub  a  floor.  —  Soft-wood  floors  must  be 
scrubbed.  Provide  two  pails  of  cold  or  lukewarm  water ;  a 
stiff  scrubbing-brush  ;  a  large,  soft,  but  not  linty  cloth  ;  and 
sapolio  or  any  good  scouring  soap.  Dip  the  brush  in  water, 
then  rub  it  over  the  sapolio.  Look  for  grease-spots  and  take 
them  out  first.  After  the  floor  has  become  wet  you  cannot 
see  where  they  are.     Scrub  with  the  grain  of  the  wood,  doing 


36      THEORY  AND  PRACTICE  OF  COOKERY 

a  few  square  feet  at  a  time.  Dip  the  cloth  in  clean  water, 
and  wash  the  part  that  has  been  scrubbed.  Use  no  more 
water  than  you  need.  Wet  the  cloth  again,  wring  it  as  dry 
as  you  can,  and  wipe  the  floor.  Proceed  in  this  way  until 
the  whole  floor  has  been  cleaned. 

Care  of  hard-wood  floor.  —  On  a  hard-wood  floor  use 
little  water  or  none  at  all.  Wipe  it  with  a  cloth  moistened 
with  a  very  little  kerosene,  —  a  teaspoonful  or  two  to  begin 
with,  and  as  much  more  when  that  has  evaporated.  Rub 
hard  with  another  cloth  until  the  wood  is  perfectly  dry. 
Window-sills  and  all  hard-wood  finish  may  be  cleaned  in 
the  same  way. 

Care  of  oil-cloth.  —  Wash  oil-cloth  with  warm  water  and 
milk,  —  one  cupful  of  skim-milk  to  one  gallon  of  water,  — 
and  wipe  dry  with  clean  cloth. 

Cleaning  paint.  —  To  clean  paint,  provide  whiting,  two 
basins  or  pails  of  water,  and  three  clean,  soft  cloths,  — 
woollen  is  best.  Take  a  little  whiting  on  a  damp  cloth, 
and  rub  it  on  the  surface  to  be  cleaned.  Do  not  let  drops  of 
water  trickle  down  the  paint.  Wash  off  with  a  second  cloth 
and  clean  water.  Wipe  dry  with  a  third  cloth.  Clean  a 
little  at  a  time,  leaving  the  cleaned  part  dry  before 
going  on. 

Dusting.  —  After  sweeping  a  room  dust  the  woodwork, 
furniture,  and  movable  articles  with  a  soft  cotton  cloth. 
Spread  the  cloth  out  and  gather  the  dust  into  it,  folding  it  in 
as  you  work.  Shake  it  frequently  out  of  the  window.  In 
the  kitchen  where  there  are  no  delicate  articles  to  be  injured 
by  moisture,  use  a  damp  cloth.     To  have  it  just    damp 


PLATE  III. 


^    ,  ^  Georgie  Boynton  Child. 

^-■^'^  ^r'  r.  /  "r  ^ r"-     '  '  Kf TcSiEiSrH'rTE  WITH  Gas-range. 
Obaerve  the  roll  of  paper  towelling,  rack  for  draining  dishes,  match-boxes  attached  to  stove,  and 
a  number  of  utensil^  within  easy  reach. 


PREPARATORY  LESSONS  37 

enough,  wet  a  part  of  it,  wring  this  out,  fold  the  damp  part 
and  the  dry  together,  and  squeeze  them.  When  the  room 
has  been  dusted,  wash  the  cloth  and  hang  it  to  dry. 

THE   SINK  AND   ITS  FITTINGS 

Construction  of  the  sink ;  the  trap.  —  Porcelain  and 
enamelled  iron  are  the  best  materials  for  a  sink.  Wood  is 
least  desirable,  because  hardest  to  keep  clean.  The  space 
below  the  sink  should  be  left  open.  The  sink  should  slope 
down  toward  the  waste-pipe.  The  waste-pipe  should  have 
a  bend  in  it  that  will  allow  water  to  stand  in  it  deep  enough 
to  prevent  gases  from  passing  up  from  the  drain  into  the 
kitchen.  This  bend  is  called  a  trap.  The  water  it  contains 
is  called  a  water-seal.     (See  Fig.  4,  p.  38.) 

After  pouring  soiled  water  down  the  waste-pipe,  follow 
it  with  clean  water,  so  that  foul  water  shall  not  stand  in 
the  trap.  If  a  sink  is  left  unused  for  several  days  or  longer, 
the  water-seal  may  evaporate  so  that  gases  from  the  drain 
rise  into  the  room.  On  this  account  a  house  that  has  been 
vacant  should  be  well  aired  before  being  occupied. 

Sink-fixttires  and  conveniences.  —  There  should  be  a 
strainer,  screwed  down  over  the  top  of  the  waste-pipe.  It 
is  well  to  have  a  finer  strainer  also,  through  which  to  pour 
waste-water.  This,  by  catching  crumbs  which  might  pass 
through  the  set  strainer,  helps  to  keep  the  sink  clean.  A 
grooved  draining-board,  sloped  toward  the  sink,  and  a 
shelf  above  the  sink  for  cleaning  materials,  are  convenient. 
There  should  be  hooks  for  hand-basin,  dipper,  soap-saver, 
sink-scraper,  and  scrubbing-brush.     The  garbage-pail  should 


PORC^LA/A/  s5/^K 


Br^35  Strainer 


W<35t-e  pipe 
Jtanc/ard 

-  St^nddrd 

loafer  Jed/ 
Yrap  6 ere  Mi/ 


Fig.  4. 


PREPARATORY  LESSONS  39 

be  of  metal;  or  other  non-absorbent  material.  Its  cover 
should  fit  tightly. 

Care  of  the  sink. — Neglect  of  the  sink  causes  bad  odors  and 
attracts  water-bugs  and  roaches.  Keep  it  at  all  times  free 
from  scraps.  When  the  dishes  have  been  washed,  or  when 
the  sink  is  to  be  left  unused  for  several  hours,  wash  it,  using 
scrubbing-brush  and  sapolio.  Wipe  the  woodwork  and  tiling. 
Wash  strainer,  soap-dish,  and  other  sink  utensils.  Wash  the 
cloth.  Scrub  the  draining-board,  and  rinse  the  sink.  If  it 
is  of  iron,  and  is  to  be  left  for  several  hours,  wipe  it  dry. 
If  rusty,  use  kerosene,  or  grease  it  with  mutton-fat  or  lard, 
sprinkle  with  lime,  and  leave  overnight. 

Care  of  faucets.  —  Clean  brass  faucets  with  flannel 
dipped  in  vinegar  or  lemon-juice,  and  rub  thoroughly  with 
rottenstone  and  oil,  then  polish  with  a  dry  cloth ;  or  apply 
putz  pomade  or  some  similar  preparation,  rub  off  with 
another  cloth,  and  polish  with  a  third  one.  If  the  faucets 
are  greasy,  wash  them  with  soap-suds  or  sal-soda  solution 
before  using  anything  else.  Nickel  faucets  and  trimmings 
need  only  to  be  washed  with  hot  soap-suds  and  wiped  dry. 

Care  of  waste-pipe  and  trap.  —  Waste-pipe  and  trap  must 
be  kept  as  free  as  possible  from  deposits  of  grease.  After 
pouring  down  very  greasy  water  pour  down  boiling  water  so 
that  the  grease  may  not  cool  and  settle  on  the  sides  of  the 
waste-pipe. 

Care    of   garbage-pail.^  —  Scrub    the   garbage-pail   with 

^  It  is  better  to  avoid  using  a  garbage-pail.  Garbage  may  be  burned 
in  a  bright  fire  if  all  the  drafts  are  left  open.  A  garbage-incinerator  built 
into  the  stove-pipe  or  chimney  is  desirable. 


40      THEORY  AND  PRACTICE  OF  COOKERY 

sal-soda  and  rinse  with  boiling  water  once  a  day.  Dry  it 
in  the  sunshine,  if  possible.  Where  there  is  no  objection  to 
mixing  paper  with  garbage,  the  pail  may  be  kept  clean  by 
lining  it  with  newspaper. 

CAEE   OF  DISHES 

Dish-washing  need  not  be  an  unpleasant  task  if  these 
rules  are  observed  :  1.  Use  hot  soapy  water.  2.  Change  the 
water  frequently.  3.  Have  the  dishes  free  from  crumbs 
and  scraps  before  beginning  to  wash  them. 

Directions  for  dish-washing.  Preparation.  —  Collect  all 
dishes  to  be  washed.  To  save  time  and  steps  in  clearing 
off,  use  a  tray  to  carry  dishes  from  table  to  sink.  Some 
people,  by  taking  only  what  they  can  carry  in  their  hands, 
make  ten  trips  where  two  would  do.  If  you  can  afford  it, 
have  a  butler's  tray  (Frontispiece).  As  you  take  the  dishes 
from  the  table,  scrape  and  stack  them  on  the  tray.  Wheel 
it  to  the  sink  and  remove  the  dishes  from  it  directly  to  the 
dishpan.  A  table  on  casters  will  do  instead  of  the  tray. 
Scrape  them,  putting  scraps  in  an  earthenware  or  enamelled 
dish ;  wipe  frying-pans  and  other  greasy  dishes  with  pieces 
of  soft  paper.  This  paper  may  be  used  for  kindling.  Or 
fill  them  with  hot  water  to  which  a  teaspoonful  of  sal-soda 
has  been  added,  and  let  them  stand.  Soak  dishes  that  have 
contained  batter,  dough,  eggs,  or  any  starchy  material  in 
cold  water ;  dishes  that  have  been  used  to  cook  sugar,  in 
hot  water.  Put  all  dishes  of  a  kind  together ;  plates  in 
piles,  knives,  forks,  and  spoons  laid  with  handles  one  way, 
etc.     Place  nearest  to  you  the  dishes  to  be  washed  first. 


PREPARATORY  LESSONS  41 

Have  a  clean  dry  place  clear  for  clean  dishes.  Make  ready 
two  pans,  or  one  if  there  is  a  draining-board. 

Washing.  —  Wash  the  dishes  in  the  following  order : 
1,  Glassware;  2,  silver;  3,  cups  and  saucers;  4,  plates; 
5,  larger  dishes ;  6,  the  cleaner  articles  of  kitchenware ; 
7,  large  utensils.  This  order  may  be  varied  according  to 
circumstances.  If  you  have  hot  water  at  hand  constantly, 
the  kitchen  utensils  may  be  washed  and  put  away  first,  or 
as  fast  as  they  are  used. 

General  instructions.  —  Wash  all  dishes,  inside  and  out, 
in  soapy  water;  rinse  in  clear  hot  water,  drain,  and  wipe 
dry.  Use  sapolio  or  cleaning  powder  to  remove  food  that 
sticks  or  is  burnt  on.  Use  a  wire  dish-cloth  on  ironware, 
a  scrubbing-brush,  if  necessary,  on  enamelled  ware,  tinware, 
and  wire  strainers.  Clean  seams  in  tinware  and  enamelled 
ware  with  a  wooden  skewer. 

Special  instructions.  —  Do  not  put  knife-handles  in 
water.  Water  discolors  and  cracks  ivory  and  bone  handles, 
and  may  loosen  wooden  ones.  After  washing  knives,  scour 
them  with  bath  brick.  Do  not  wash  bread-board  or 
rolling-pin  at  an  iron  sink.  The  iron  will  leave  marks  on 
them.  Wash  them  at  the  table.  Be  careful  not  to  wet 
the  cogs  of  a  Dover  egg-beater.  Wash  the  lower  part,  and 
wipe  off  the  handle  with  a  damp  cloth.  Water  washes  the 
oil  from  the  cogs,  thus  making  the  beater  hard  to  turn. 
Dry  the  seams  of  a  double-boiler  carefully.  Do  not  waste 
time  polishing  tins.  It  is  sufficient  to  have  them  clean  and 
dry. 

Dip  glasses  into  hot  water^  so  that  they  will  be  wet 


42      THEORY  AND  PRACTICE  OF  COOKERY 

inside  and  outside  at  the  same  time.  Unequal  expansion 
of  the  glass,  caused  by  one  part's  being  heated  suddenly, 
is  what  breaks  them.  Silver  and  glass  are  brightest  if 
wiped  directly  from  clean,  hot  suds,  without  being  rinsed. 
A  damp  towel  makes  dull  spoons  and  glasses.  Scald ;  i.e., 
rinse  with  boiling  water  all  vessels  that  have  contained 
milk.  Wash  teapot  and  coffee-pot  in  clean  hot  water 
without  soap,  and  wipe  dry.  Clean  the  spout  carefully. 
Let  them  stand  for  a  while  with  covers  off.  Wash  dish- 
pan  and  rinsing-pan,  and  wipe  dry  with  a  towel,  not  with 
the  dish-cloth. 

Wliere  running  hot  water  is  plentiful,  time  and  towels 
can  be  saved  by  placing  the  dishes  as  they  are  washed  in  a 
wire  rack,  rinsing  them  with  very  hot  water,  and  letting 
them  drain.  It  is  best,  if  possible,  to  set  the  rack  of  dishes 
for  a  minute  into  a  pan  or  sink  full  of  scalding  hot  water. 
Wipe  glasses  and  silver.  China  and  other  ware  will  need 
only  a  polish  with  towel  or  strip  of  paper  towelling.  For 
success  with  this  method,  the  dishes  must  be  washed  in 
clean  hot  suds,  and  rinsed  quickly.  If  washed  in  greasy 
water,  or  allowed  to  cool  before  being  rinsed,  they  will  not 
dry  clean.  Caution :  gold-decorated  china  should  not  be 
washed  in  this  way.     Very  hot  water  may  injure  it. 

For  care  of  towels  and  sink,  see  pp.  39  and  44. 

To  scour  steel  knives.  —  Scrape  off  a  little  bath  brick 
with  the  back  of  the  knife  or  with  an  old  knife.  Dip  a  cork 
in  water  or  oil,  and  then  in  the  brick-dust.  Hold  the  knife 
firmly,  with  the  blade  resting  fiat  upon  a  level  surface,  and 
rub  both  sides  of  the  blade  with  the  cork.     (Fig.  5.)     Wash 


PREPARATORY  LESSONS  43 

the  knife.     Scour  steel  forks  in  the  same  way.     Never  scour 
silver-plated  knives  or  forks. 

Care  of  aluminum  ware.  —  Aluminum  should  not  be 
used  for  vegetables  with  strong  acid  or  for  boiling  eggs. 
These  discolor  it.  Other- 
wise it  needs  little  care. 
Never  use  soda  on  alu- 
minum. Before  using 
any  polish  fill  with  water 
and  bring  to  a  boil.  For 
bad  stains  use  oxalic  acid 
diluted,  one  teaspoonful 

of  acid  to  two  quarts  of  water.     If  the  stain  still  remains, 
rub  with  a  damp  cloth  dipped  in  whiting  or  Dutch  cleanser. 

To  clean  silverware.  —  The  quickest  way  to  brighten  sil- 
ver is  by  electrolysis,  that  is,  by  decomposing  the  tarnish 
by  electricity.  One  device  for  this  purpose  is  an  aluminum 
pan  with  cross-bars  of  tin  on  the  bottom.  Fill  the  pan 
with  water,  and  for  every  quart  dissolve  in  it  one  teaspoon- 
ful of  baking-soda  and  one  tablespoonful  of  salt.  The  sil- 
ver must  rest  on  the  bars  and  be  covered  with  the  solution. 
A  mild  current  of  electricity  is  set  up  which  causes  the  tar- 
nish quickly  to  disappear.  No  rubbing  is  needed,  but  em- 
bossed silver  may  need  brushing  to  loosen  the  tarnish. 
Rinse  in  clear  water,  and  wipe  dry  with  a  soft  cloth.  The 
old  way  is  to  moisten  a  soft  cloth  with  water  or  alcohol, 
dip  it  in  fine  whiting,  and  apply  to  the  silver.  When  the 
whiting  has  dried,  rub  it  off  with  another  soft  cloth,  and 
polish   with    chamois-skin.     To    cleanse    chasing   or   orna- 


44      THEORY  AND  PRACTICE  OF  COOKERY 

mental  work,  use  an  old  tooth-brush.  Rub  egg-stained 
spoons  and  other  badly  tarnished  articles  with  salt  before 
washing  them.  The  tarnish  is  not  soluble,  but  with  the 
chlorine  in  the  salt  it  forms  a  soluble  compound  (pp.  22 
and  57).  Powders  or  cakes  sold  by  silversmiths  are  good. 
Patent  powders  and  polishes  often  remove  some  of  the  silver. 

CARE   OF  KITCHEN  TOWELS  AND   CLOTHS 

Dish-cloths;  dish-towels,  and  sink-cloths  should  be 
hemmed.  Lint  and  threads  from  unhemmed  cloths  are 
likely  to  obstruct  the  sink  drain.  Use  each  cloth  only  for 
the  purpose  for  which  it  is  intended. 

The  dish-cloth.  —  Keep  the  dish-cloth  clean.  It  is  dis- 
agreeable to  think  of  eating  from  dishes  washed  with  a 
sticky,  greasy  cloth.  Such  a  cloth  harbors  germ  and  may 
spread  disease.  Wash  the  dish-cloth  with  hot  water  and 
soap  after  using  it.  Rinse,  shake  it  out,  and  hang  it  to 
dry,  —  in  the  sun,  if  possible.  Boil  it  once  a  week,  or 
whenever  washing  fails  to  make  it  white.  Never  use  it  for 
anything  except  washing  dishes. 

Other  cloths.  —  Wash  dish-towels  often  in  warm  water, 
using  soap.  Rinse  them  in  warm  or  cold  water,  and 
hang  them  to  dry  with  the  ends  pulled  evenly  together. 
Strainer-cloths  that  are  not  greasy  may  be  washed  in  cold 
water.  Wash  greasy  ones  in  hot  water  with  soap  or  sal- 
soda.  To  remove  fruit  stains  from  a  cloth,  lay  it  over  a 
bowl  and  pour  boiling  water  upon  the  stain.  All  cleaning- 
cloths  should  be  washed,  rinsed,  and  dried  after  being  used. 
Throw  very  dirty  ones  away. 


PREPARATORY  LESSONS  45 

CARE   OF  STOVE   AND   ZINC 

If  anything  is  spilled  on  the  stove  or  range,  wipe  it  off 
at  once  with  soft  paper.  Use  sapolio  to  remove  anything 
not  taken  off  by  the  paper.  To  keep  it  black  and  clean, 
wipe  it  daily  with  a  few  drops  of  kerosene  on  a  cloth.  Polish- 
ing is  unnecessary  ;  but  if  you  prefer  to  polish  it,  apply  stove- 
blacking  just  after  the  fire  has  been  started,  and  polish  with  a 
brush  or  coarse  cloth.  A  new  type  of  gas-range  is  enamelled, 
a  finish  which  makes  it  much  easier  to  keep  clean. 

Zinc  discolors  easily.  Even  a  drop  of  water  allowed  to 
stand  on  it  will  make  a  spot.  It  may  be  cleaned  with  a  little 
kerosene  rubbed  on  with  a  flannel,  or  with  electro-silicon 
on  a  damp  cloth.     Polish  with  dry  flannel. 

CARE   OF  REFRIGERATOR 

The  waste-pipe  of  the  refrigerator  or  ice-box  should 
empty  into  a  pan,  or  into  the  open  end  of  a  properly  trapped 
drain-pipe. 

Daily  care.  —  Keep  the  inside  of  the  food  chamber  dry. 
See  that  no  food  remains  in  the  refrigerator  long  enough  to 
spoil.  Empty  the  pan,  if  there  is  one,  every  day.  If  there 
is  a  catch-basin,  keep  it  free  from  dust  and  slime. 

Weekly  cleaning.  —  Clean  the  refrigerator  thoroughly 
at  least  once  a  week.  Take  out  both  food  and  ice.  Wash 
shelves  and  racks  with  hot  soapsuds  or  with  sal-soda  solu- 
tion, and  rinse  with  clear  hot  water.  Dry  them  in  the 
open  air  or  by  the  fire.  Wash  the  food  chamber  and  the 
air  chamber  in  the  same  way.     Clean  grooves  and  corners 


46      THEORY  AND  PRACTICE  OF  COOKERY 

with  a  skewer,  and  run  a  wire  with  a  cloth  twisted  around  it 
down  the  waste-pipe.  Rinse  the  pipe  with  hot  sal-soda 
solution.  Wipe  the  refrigerator  dry ;  and,  if  possible,  let 
it  remain  open  for  an  hour. 

CARE   OF  ARTICLES  USED   IN  CLEANING 

Rinse  scrubbing-brushes  and  dry  them  in  the  sun,  bristles 
down.  Hang  up  brooms,  when  not  in  use,  by  screw-eyes 
or  strings  tied  into  the  handles.  Wash  dusters  often. 
Do  not  waste  soap  by  leaving  it  in  water.  Keep  knife- 
cleaning  materials  in  one  box,  silver-polishing  materials  in 
another,  etc.  See  that  all  things  used  in  cleaning  are  kept 
clean. 

Insects.  —  Protect  food  from  flies.  Flies  come  from 
dirty  places  and  may  carry  germs  of  typhoid  fever  or  other 
diseases  on  their  feet.  To  keep  flies,  ants,  cockroaches, 
and  water-bugs  away,  keep  the  kitchen  clean  and  dry,  keep 
food  and  garbage  covered,  and  leave  no  scraps  or  crumbs 
about.  For  ways  of  ridding  a  kitchen  of  insects,  see  books 
of  reference  named  on  page  48. 

PERSONAL  CLEANLINESS 

Observe  the  following  rules  in  both  the  school  kitchen  and 
the  home  kitchen  :  — 

1.  When  cooking,  or  doing  other  housework,  wear  a 
washable  gown  short  enough  to  clear  the  floor  by  at  least 
two  inches. 


PREPARATORY  LESSONS  47 

2.  When  in  the  kitchen,  pin  or  tie  your  hair  back  so  that 
no  hairs  may  fall  into  the  food.  When  sweeping,  cover  it 
with  a  cap  or  kerchief  to  protect  it  from  dust. 

3.  Wear  no  rings  nor  bracelets  in  the  kitchen. 

4.  Before  touching  or  preparing  any  food,  wash  your 
hands  thoroughly  with  soap  and  water ;  scrub  the  nails 
with  a  nail  brush,  and  clean  them  with  a  wooden  tooth- 
pick or  a  regular  nail  cleaner. 

5.  Keep  a  damp  towel  at  hand,  on  which  to  wipe  your 
fingers  if  they  become  soiled  or  sticky.  Always  wipe 
them  after  touching  your  hair  or  pocket  handkerchief, 
or  after  handling  the  coal-hod,  or  anything  else  not  quite 
clean.  Never  wipe  them  on  your  apron,  your  handker- 
chief, or  on  a  dish-towel. 

6.  Never  dry  dishes  with  a  hand-towel. 

7.  The  best  way  to  taste  of  what  you  are  cooking  is  to 
take  a  little  of  the  food  up  with  the  mixing-spoon,  put  it 
in  a  teaspoon,  and  taste  from  the  teaspoon.  If  you  should 
happen  to  taste  from  the  mixing-spoon,  wash  it  before 
putting  it  back  into  the  dish. 

Brief  Reference  List 

For  further  development  of  topics  treated  in  this  section 
see :  — 

KiNNE  AND  CooLEY :  Foods  and  household  management.     Ch.  2,  and  ch. 

22,  Dust. 
Elliott  :  Household  bacteriology.     Pp.  1-39.     Sanitation,  pp.  96-108. 
Elliott  :  Household  hygiene. 
Abel  :  The  care  of  food  in  the  home.    Farmers^  Bulletin  375. 


48      THEORY  AND  PRACTICE  OF  COOKERY 

Buchanan  :  Household  bacteriology. 

Conn  :    Bacteria,  yeasts  and  molds  in  the  home. 

Richards  :  Sanitation  in  daily  life. 

Richards  and  Elliott  :  The  chemistry  of  cooking  and  cleaning. 

U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agriculture  :  Division  of  Entomology.  Circulars  : 
13.  Mosquitoes  and  flies ;  34.  House  ants;  35.  House  flies;  51.  Cock- 
roaches ;   also  other  circulars  about  other  insect  pests. 

Health  Education  League  :  Booklet  4.  The  plague  of  mosquitoes  and 
flies. 

DoANE :  Insects  and  disease.     Illustrations  and  bibliography. 

Parloa  :  Home  economics. 

Section  4.     Definitions,  Tables,  Rules 

Food  and  cooking;   how  and  why  food  is  cooked. — 

Food  is  whatever  nourishes  the  body.  Cooking  is  making 
food  ready  to  eat.     This  is  done  chiefly  by  means  of  heat. 

Food  is  exposed  to  the  action  of  heat,  (1)  to  make  it 
more  digestible,  (2)  to  improve  its  flavor,  (3)  to  kill  any 
living  things  it  may  contain,  and  (4)  to  improve  its  appear- 
ance. 

Many  vegetable  foods  and  a  few  animal  foods,  oysters 
for  instance,  may  be  eaten  uncooked. 


PRINCIPAL  METHODS  OF  COOKING 


1.  Broiling:  cooking  over  a  glowing  fire. 

2.  Roasting  (toasting)  :  cooking  before  a 

glowing  fire. 

3.  Baking:  cooking  in  an  oven. 


Direct     appli- 
cation  of 
heat. 

Application 
by  means  of 
heated  air. 


PREPARATORY  LESSONS 


49 


4.  Boiling:  cooking  in  boiling  water. 

5.  Stewing:   cooking  for  a  long  time  in 

water  below  the  boiling-point. 

a.  moist :       cooking      in 
steamer. 


6.  Steaming: 


7.  Frying:     cooking    in    hot    fat    deep 

enough  to  cover  the  article  to  be 
cooked. 

8.  Sauteing  ^ :    cooking  in  a  small  quan- 

tity of  hot  fat. 


Pan-hr  oiling: 
Pan-baking: 


cooking  in  a  frying- 
pan  or  on  a  griddle, 
with  little  or  no  fat. 


h.  dry  :  cooking  in  double 
boiler. 


Heat  applied 
by  means  of 
water. 

By  contact 
with  steam. 

By  the  heat 
of  steam 
surrounding 
vessel. 

Heat  applied 
by  means  of 
heated  fat. 

Heat    applied 
by  means 
of  heated 
metal. 


10.  Braising:  a  combination  of  stewing  and  baking. 

11.  Fricasseeing:    a  combination  of  frying  and  stewing. 


Table  of  Measures 

3  teaspoonf uls  make 1  tablespoonful 

16  tablespoonfuls  of  any  dry  ingredient  make 1  cupful  ^ 

12  tablespoonfuls  of  liquid  make 1  cupful 

4  cupfuls  make 1  quart 

^  Pronounced  sotaying.  ^  ^  half-pint  cup  is  the  standard. 


60      THEORY  AND  PRACTICE  OF  COOKERY 

Table  Comparing  Weights  and  Measures 

2  cupfuls  of  butter  (packed  solidly) = 

2  cupfuls  of  finely  chopped  meat  (packed  solidly)     .     .     .  = 

2  cupfuls  of  granulated  sugar = 

2f  cupfuls  of  powdered  sugar = 

2|  cupfuls  of  brown  sugar = 

2f  cupfuls  of  oatmeal = 

4f  cupfuls  of  rolled  oats = 

4  cupfuls  of  flour  (about) = 

9  or  10  eggs = 

2  tablespoonfuls  of  butter = 

4  tablespoonfuls  of  flour        = 

2  tablespoonfuls  of  cocoa = 


1  poimd 


1  ounce 


DIRECTIONS   FOR  MEASURING 

1.  Sift,  or  shake  up  lightly  with  a  spoon,  all  dry  mate- 
rials (flour,  baking-powder,  etc.)  before  measuring  them. 
Always  sift  mustard. 

2.  All  measures  are  to  be  taken  level  unless  otherwise 
directed.^ 

3.  To  measure  a  cupful  of  dry  material,  fill  the  cup 
with  a  spoon  or  scoop,  and  level  off  with  a  case-knife. 
To  measure  a  teaspoonful  or  tablespoonful  of  dry  ma- 
terial, fill  the  spoon  by  dipping  it  into  the  material,  lift 
it,  and  level  off  with  a  case-knife.  To  measure  a  half- 
spoonful,  divide  a  spoon  lengthwise  with  the  knife.  Di- 
vide a  half-spoonful  crosswise  to  measure  a  quarter,  and 
a  quarter-spoonful  crosswise  to  measure  an  eighth.  Less 
than  an  eighth  of  a  teaspoonful  is  called  "  a  few  grains." 

^  In  some  cookbooks,  including  all  published  before  1896,  it  is  intended 
that  spoonfuls  of  flour,  baking-powder,  sugar,  butter,  and  lard  should  be 
measured  rounded.     One  rounded  spoonful  is  equal  to  two  level  spoonfuls. 


PLATE  IV. 


Steamer        Colander  Strainers 

Double  boiler  Melon-mold 

Vegetable  press     (for  puddings,  ice  cream,  etc.) 
Potato-masher  Biscuit-cutter 

Cooking  Utensils. 


Fish-boiler 
Flour-sifter    Funnel 
Lemon-squeezer 


One  cupful  of  sugar  weighing  one-half  pound 
Quart-measure  Measuring  one  cupful  of  dry  material 

Half-pint  measuring-cup 

One-half  teaspoonful,    One-fourth  tableipoonful, 
measured  measured 

Measuring. 


•    «•:  ,'";  m.y     *«>•  •    •«*    ,        » 


PREPARATORY  LESSONS  51 

4.  A  cupful  of  liquid  is  all  the  cup  will  hold ;  a  spoonful 
of  Hquid  is  all  the  spoon  will  hold.  A  heaping  spoonful  of 
dry  material  is  all  the  spoon  will  hold.  A  scant  cupful  is 
measured  by  filling  the  cup  to  within  one-eighth  of  an  inch 
of  the  brim. 

Note.  —  Success  in  cooking  depends  greatly  upon  accuracy  in  measur- 
ing. Only  after  much  practice  in  measuring  as  here  directed,  should  you 
venture  to  measure  even  small  quantities  by  your  eye.  The  requirement 
of  accurate  measuring  and  the  giving  of  exact  quantities  of  material  in 
the  recipes  in  this  book,  are  not  intended,  however,  to  do  away  with  the 
exercise  of  individual  taste  and  judgment.  So  long  as  flours  vary  in 
thickening  quality,  and  spices  and  other  cooking  materials  in  strength, 
it  will  be  impossible  to  write  recipes  that  can  be  followed  absolutely  in 
all  cases.  Follow  a  recipe  exactly  the  first  time  you  use  it ;  if  it  requires 
to  be  varied,  you  can  then  make  the  change  intelligently ;  but  if  you  have 
not  followed  it  exactly,  you  cannot  be  sure  which  is  at  fault,  the  recipe  or 
the  cook. 

The  quantities  of  seasonings  given  in  this  book  are,  as  a  rule,  the  smallest 
desirable.  Increase  them  cautiously  to  suit  your  taste ;  but  do  not  fall  into 
the  error,  common  in  America,  of  overseasoning  food  with  pepper  and  salt. 

Note  to  Teacher.  —  In  dividing  recipes  to  make  individual  recipes 
for  practice-work,  allow  more  liquid  proportionately  than  the  whole  rec- 
ipe calls  for.  More  proportionately  of  a  small  quantity  of  liquid  will 
cling  to  cup  or  spoon,  and  more  will  be  lost  by  evaporation  in  cooking. 

One  egg  beaten  usually  makes  about  one-fourth  of  a  cupful.  If  you 
are  dividing  by  eight  a  recipe  which  calls  for  one  egg,  use  two  teaspoon- 
fuls  of  beaten  egg  in  the  individual  recipe. 

In  individual  recipes  use  baking-powder  in  the  proportion  of  two  tea- 
spoonfuls  to  one  cupful  of  flour. 

Individual  Recipe  for  Standard  Cake  (p.  277) 
Butter,  I  tb.  Flour,  3  tb. 

Sugar,  2  tb.  Baking-powder,  J  t. 

Beaten  egg,  1  tb.  Vanilla,  4  drops 

Milk,  1  tb.  Salt,  f.  g. 


52  THEORY  AND  PRACTICE  OF  COOKERY 

Table  of  Abbreviations  used  in  this  Book 


spoonful. 


tb. 

stands  for  tablespoonful,  or  tablespoonfuls 

t. 

stands  for  teaspoonful,  or  teaspoonfuls. 

c. 

stands  for  cupful,  or  cupfuls. 

qt. 

stands  for  quart. 

pt. 

stands  for  pint. 

lb. 

stands  for  pound. 

oz. 

stands  for  ounce. 

f.g. 

stands  for  a  few  grains. 

r. 

stands  for  rounded. 

books  T.  or  tbsp.  stands  for  tablespoonful,  anc 

hp. 

stands  for  heaping. 

sc. 

stands  for  scant. 

min. 

stands  for  minute,  or  minutes. 

hr. 

stands  for  hour. 

Hints  on  how  to  work.  —  1.  See  that  the  fire  is  ready  for 
use,  or  so  arranged  that  it  will  be  ready  by  the  time  it  is 
needed. 

2.  Collect  all  the  materials  that  will  be  needed. 

3.  Collect  all  the  dishes,  spoons,  and  other  utensils  that 
will  be  needed,  including  a  plate  on  which  to  lay  sticky 
spoons,  knives,  etc. 

4.  Take  care  not  to  make  work  for  yourself  by  using 
more  utensils  than  are  necessary.  For  instance,  by  meas- 
uring dry  materials  first,  then  liquids,  and  last,  fats,  you 
need  use  only  one  cup. 

5.  When  milk  and  eggs  are  used,  save  a  little  of  the 
milk  to  rinse  out  the  bowl  in  which  the  eggs  are  beaten. 

6.  Use  an  earthen  bowl  for  mixing  cakes,  muffins,  etc. 


PREPARATORY  LESSONS  53 

A  tin  dish  and  an  iron  spoon  are  likely  to   discolor  the 
mixture. 

7.  Have  all  materials  ready  for  use  (flour  sifted  and 
measured;  eggs  broken,  raisins  stoned,  etc.),  before  be- 
ginning to  put  them  together. 

8.  Cover  flour-barrel,  sugar-bucket,  baking-powder  can, 
etc.,  as  soon  as  you  have  taken  from  them  what  you  need. 

9.  Clear  up  as  you  work,  putting  dishes  to  soak  as  soon 
as  they  are  emptied,  and  washing  them  at  once  if  you  have 
a  moment  to  spare. 

10.  When  you  have  finished,  collect  all  the  dishes  that 
remain,  saving  any  unused  material  that  is  in  good  con- 
dition. 

11.  Learn  to  work  neatly,  carefully,  quietly,  and  quickly. 

PURE    FOODS   AND   HONEST   WEIGHTS   AND   MEASURES 

Pure  food  means  honest  food.  It  would  not  be  honest  to 
can  spoiled  fruit,  to  mix  cracker  crumbs  or  sawdust  with 
spice,  to  substitute  a  cheaper  oil  such  as  cottonseed  for 
olive-oil,  or  to  color  or  bleach  food  with  poisonous  chemicals. 
Such  practices  are  examples  of  food  adulteration.  Mis- 
hranding  food  is  putting  labels  on  it  which  are  intended  to 
deceive  the  purchaser.  ''  Pure  food  laws  "  prohibit  adul- 
teration and  misbranding.  Each  state  should  have  strict 
laws  of  this  kind,  as  the  Federal  laws  do  not  apply  to  foods 
prepai:ed  and  sold  in  the  same  state. 

One  should  know  what  is  a  reasonable  price  for  each  kind 
of  goods  and  be  suspicious  of  anything  much  cheaper.  One 
may  rightly  buy  the  cheaper  of  two  similar  foods  if  it  is 


54      THEORY  AND  PRACTICE  OF  COOKERY 

wholesome  and  sold  for  what  it  really  is.  But  food  of  poor 
quality  will  not  do  the  work  of  good  food  in  the  body. 
True  thrift  is  to  buy  reliable  food  and  to  waste  none  of  it 
by  careless  handling  or  poor  cooking. 

In  buying  supplies,  see  that  you  get  the  quantity  you 
pay  for.  Some  tradesmen  are  dishonest.  Others  may  be 
careless.  Some,  particularly  pedlers  and  small  dealers 
who  undersell  others,  use  false  weights  and  measures  :  scales 
that  weigh  less  than  they  appear  to,  ^^  quart  measures  " 
holding  less  than  a  quart,  cans  and  baskets  with  false  bot- 
toms. Buy  everything  by  a  standard  measure,  such  as  a 
pound,  a  quart,  or  a  bushel.  The  terms  ''  pailful,"  "  hand- 
ful,'' or  "  ten  cents'  worth,"  mean  nothing  in  law.  But  the 
dealer  who  sells  less  than  a  pound  for  a  pound,  or  less  than  a 
bushel  for  a  bushel  may  be  arrested  and  punished. 

See  that  the  dealer  does  not  touch  the  scales  or  the  food 
while  it  is  being  weighed.  Do  not  let  him  weigh  a  wooden 
dish  with  lard  or  butter,  or  a  heavy  paper  or  bag  with  any- 
thing you  buy  unless  he  allows  for  its  weight.  It  pays  to 
have  accurate  scales  and  a  set  of  accurate  dry  and  liquid 
measures  in  the  kitchen  with  which  to  re-weigh  your  pur- 
chases. 

Brief  Reference  List 

For  further  development  of  topics  treated  in  this  section 
see :  — 

Parloa  :  Home  economics. 

Housekeeping  Experiment   Station:  Bulletins.      Particularly  5   and 

12. 
Barrows:  Prind'ples  oj  cookery. 


PREPARATORY  LESSONS  55 

Mayor's  Bureau  of  Weights  and  Measures,  N.  Y.  City  :  What  the 

purchasing  public  should  know. 
U.   S.   Dept.   of  Agriculture  :  Bureau  of  Chemistry.    Publications 

relating  to  the  inspection  and  analysis  of  food. 
Sherman:  Food  products.      For  information  about  adulteration,  pure 

food  laws,  etc. 
Farmer:  Boston  cooking  school  cook-book.      For  time-tables,  methods 

of  working,  and  cooking-utensils. 

Section  5.    Household  Chemistry 

-  Physical  and  chemical  changes.  —  How  many  changes 
take  place  every  day  in  common  things  ! 

The  burning  candle  changes  from  an  opaque  white  solid 
to  a  translucent  liquid,  and  then  to  a  mixture  of  invisible 
gases.  Salt;  upon  being  mixed  with  water,  becomes  a  clear 
hquid.  not  distinguishable  from  water  itself.  The  solid 
carbon  of  wood  and  the  gas  oxygen  unite  to  form  carbon 
dioxide,  a  gas  quite  different  from  oxygen ;  and  when  the 
action  is  over,  a  handful  of  gray  ashes  is  all  the  solid  sub- 
stance left.  Heat  readily  changes  ice  to  water,  and  water 
to  steam. 

We  are  so  used  to  these  happenings  that  they  excite  in  us 
no  wonder ;  yet,  for  hundreds  of  years  men  have  been  study- 
ing these  and  similar  changes,  without  finding  out  all  there 
is  to  be  known  about  them.  So  important  is  the  part  they 
play  in  our  everyday  work,  especially  in  cooking,  that  a 
knowledge  of  the  simpler  facts  about  them  is  a  great  help 
to  housekeepers. 

These  changes  are  of  two  kinds.  Liquid  candle  grease 
returns  to  the  solid  form  when  cooled ;  dissolved  salt  may 
be  recovered  by  evaporating  the  water ;  even  steam  may 
be  collected,  condensed,  and  frozen.  No  new  substance  has 
been  formed.  The  change  which  has  taken  place  is  a  phys- 
ical   change.     When,   however,   melted   candle    grease  be- 


56      THEORY  AND  PRACTICE  OF  COOKERY 

comes  gaseous,  it  will  not  return  to  its  original  form ;  burnt 
sugar  will  never  be  sweet  and  white  again ;  water  acted 
upon  by  sodium  is  neither  water,  steam,  nor  ice.  New  sub- 
stances have  been  formed.  In  each  case  a  chemical  change 
has  taken  place.  Heat,  especially  in  the  presence  of  moist- 
ure, often  brings  about  chemical  changes. 

Elements  and  compounds.  —  Some  substances  are 
simple  ;  that  is,  they  consist  of  but  one  thing.  Examples  : 
iron,  oxygen,  carbon.  A  simple  substance  is  an  element. 
Other  substances  are  composed  of  two  or  more  elements. 
Examples  :  water,  carbon  dioxide.  Into  what  elements  may 
water  be  separated  (p.  27)  ?  carbon  dioxide  (p.  5)  ?  A 
substance  composed  of  two  or  more  elements  combined  is  a 
compound.  In  a  mixture  each  substance  keeps  its  own 
properties ;  in  a  compound  these  give  place  to  new  proper- 
ties belonging  to  the  compound.  Every  chemical  change 
involves  either  the  forming  or  the  decomposition  (breaking- 
up)  of  a  compound,  usually  both.  Many  substances  may 
be  decomposed  by  electricity.  Tarnish  on  silver  is  one  of 
these  (p.  43). 

The  elements  found  in  food;  some  of  their  properties. 
—  Foods  consist  of  compounds  formed  chiefly  from  oxygen, 
carbon,  hydrogen,  and  nitrogen,  with  small  quantities  of 
other  elements.  Oxygen  is  an  invisible,  odorless  gas.  It 
is  a  very  active  element,  always  ready  to  unite  with  other 
elements  to  form  new  compounds.  The  combining  of 
oxygen  with  another  element  is  called  oxidation.  The  rust- 
ing of  metals  and  the  decay  of  organic  matter  are  slow  forms 
of  oxidation.  Oxygen  forms  about  one-fifth  of  the  volume 
of  air,  eight-ninths  of  the  weight  of  water,  and  two-thirds 
of  the  weight  of  the  human  body.  Hydrogen^  is  an  invisible 
gas.     It  will  burn,  uniting  with  oxygen  to  form  water.     It 

*  The  word  hydrogen  means  "water-maker." 


PREPARATORY  LESSONS  57 

forms  about  one-ninth  of  the  weight  of  water,  and  one- 
eleventh  of  that  of  the  human  body.  Nitrogen  is  an  invisible 
incombustible  gas.  It  does  not  readily  combine  with  other 
elements,  and  the  compounds  into  which  it  enters  break  up 
easily.  It  forms  about  one  thirty-ninth  of  the  weight  of  the 
body.  Carbon  exists  as  an  element  in  two  forms,  graphite, 
the  so-called  ^^  lead  "  of  pencils,  and  the  diamond.  It  is  most 
commonly  met  with  in  a  slightly  impure  form  as  charcoal. 
Of  all  the  elements,  no  other  enters  into  so  many  compounds 
as  does  carbon.  It  is  contained  in  all  organic  substances, 
as  is  shown  by  their  blackening  (carbonizing)  when  heated. 
Food  also  contains  chlorine,  a  gas  when  uncombined ; 
phosphorus  and  sulphur,  solid  substances,  both  poisonous 
when  uncombined ;  and  calcium,  potassium,  sodium,  mag- 
nesium,  and  iron,  all  metals.  It  is  plain  that  no  element  by 
itself  is  eatable.  Nevertheless,  chemical  compounds  of 
these  elements  make  up  our  food. 

Salts.  —  A  salt  is  a  compound  resulting  from  the  union 
of  an  acid  with  one  of  a  class  of  substances  called  bases. 
Commonest  among  bases  are  the  alkalies  (pp.  33  and 
108).  Common  salt  (sodium  chloride)  can  be  made  by 
adding  hydrochloric  acid  to  caustic  soda.  Calcium  salts 
play  the  chief  part  in  making  water  hard.  Calcium  car- 
bonate causes  temporary  hardness.  Calcium  sulphate 
causes  permanent  hardness  (p.  25). 

Action  of  acids  on  metals.  —  Acids  act  on  metals,  par- 
ticularly those  exposed  to  dampness  and  air,  forming  salts 
or  oxides  of  the  metals.  The  staining  of  steel  and  the  cor- 
roding of  tin  and  other  metal  ware  by  potatoes,  fruit,  etc., 
are  caused  by  the  action  of  organic  acids  in  the  food.  The 
salts  formed  in  this  way  are  likely  to  be  poisonous.  Food 
not  naturally  acid  may  become  so  by  the  action  of  bacteria. 
(See  Sour  milk,  p.  96.) 


58      THEORY  AND  PRACTICE  OF  COOKERY 

Brief  Reference  List 

For  further  development  of  topics  treated  in  this  section 
see:  — 

Snell:  Elementary  household  chemistry. 

VuLTfc  :  Laboratory  notes  in  household  chemistry. 

DoDD  :  Chemistry  of  the  household. 

Richards  and  Elliott  :  The  chemistry  of  cooking  and  cleaning, 

Brownlee  and  Others  :  First  principles  of  chemistry. 

Morgan  and  Lyman:  Chemistry. 


CHAPTER  II 

SOME  STARCHY  PLANTS 

Section  1.    The  Potato 

Baked  Potatoes 

Select  medium-sized  potatoes,  scrub  them  well,  and 
dry  them.  Bake  them  in  a  shallow  pan  on  the  rack  in  a  mod- 
erately hot  oven  until  soft  (usually  about  forty-five  min- 
utes). Turn  them  occasionally,  that  they  may  bake 
evenly.  When  soft,  press  them  between  the  fingers,  and 
break  the  skin  to  let  the  steam  escape.  Serve  them  folded 
in  a  napkin  in  an  uncovered  dish. 

Boiled  Potatoes 

Put  water  to  hoil.  Select  potatoes  uniform  in  size.  Scrub 
or  wash  them,  and  if  they  are  to  be  pared,  pare  them  length- 
wise, remove  the  ^'  eyes  "  and  any  dark  spots,  and  drop 
them  into  cold  water.^  Put  them  into  a  kettle  with  enough 
boiling  water  to  cover  them.  When  they  have  boiled 
twenty  minutes,  add  salt,  using  one  tablespoonful  to  six 
potatoes.     When  the  potatoes  can  be  pierced  easily  with  a 

1  The  cold  water  keeps  them  from  discoloring.  The  oxygen  of  the  air 
forms  with  the  potato  a  dark-colored  substance.  This  acid  also  stains 
the  paring-knife. 

59 


60 


THEORY  AND  PRACTICE  OF  COOKERY 


fork  or  knitting-needle,  drain  off  all  the  water,  shake  the 
kettle  gently,  sprinkle  the  potatoes  with  a  little  salt,  cover 
the  kettle  with  a  cloth  folded  in  several  thicknesses,  and  let 
it  stand  in  a  warm  place  until  the  potatoes  are  served. 
Serve  them  uncovered. 


A   STUDY  OF  A  WHITE   POTATO 

What  is  a  potato  ?  a  root  ?    Let  us  see  if  by  examining  one 
we  can  find  out.     On  its  surface  are  little  scars,   called 

*'  eyes/'  If  a  po- 
tato be  buried  in 
the  ground  in 
mild  weather  or 
kept  in  a  warm, 
dark  place,  what 
happens  ?  It 
sprouts;  that  is, 
^  the  eyes  send  out 
green  shoots  that 
in  time  have 
leaves.  These 
eyes,  then,  must 
be  buds,  and  the 
potato  a  stem,  not 
a  root;  for,  ordinarily,  roots  do  not  bud.  A  thickened 
underground  stem,  like  this  of  the  potato,  is  a  tuher} 
Potato  roots  are  slender  and  fibrous. 

1  The  sweet  potato  is  a  true  root,  but  from  its  resemblance  to  a  tuber 
is  called  a  tuberous  root. 


Fig.  6.  —  Potato-plant. 


SOME  STARCHY  PLANTS  61 

Potatoes  are  grown  from  cuttings,  not  from  seed,  each 
piece  planted  being  cut  so  that  it  has  two  or  more  eyes. 
Why  not  leave  one  eye  only?  Potatoes  are  planted  in 
April  and  May,  and  harvested  mainly  in  early  autumn. 

Hold  a  thin  slice  of  potato  to  the  light.  Is  its  substance 
denser  near  the  edges  or  at  the  centre  ?  Can  you  make  out 
an  appearance  of  network?  Note  the  thinness  of  the 
skin. 

Analysis  ^  of  potato ;  experiments  to  find  out  what  a  potato  contains.  — 
A.  Pare  and  grate  a  piece  of  raw  potato.  Squeeze  it  in  a  piece  of  cheese- 
cloth held  over  a  bowl.  Rinse  what  remains  in  the  cloth  with  cold  water, 
and  squeeze  it  as  dry  as  you  can.     What  does  it  look  and  feel  like? 

B.  Let  the  liquid  in  the  bowl  stand  until  a  white  sediment  settles ;  then 
pour  it  off  carefully.  Add  a  little  water  to  the  sediment  and  boil  it.  Does 
it  act  Uke  anything  you  have  seen  before? 

C.  Mix  one  teaspoonful  of  cornstarch  with  one  tablespoonful  of  cold 
water,  add  one-fourth  cupful  of  boiling  water,  and  stir  until  clear.  Do 
the  same  with  laundry  starch.  Dissolve  about  one  teaspoonful  of  salt 
in  one-fourth  of  a  cupful  of  water ;  do  the  same  with  one  teaspoonful  of 
sugar.  Add  a  few  drops  of  tincture  of  iodine  to  a  test-tube  of  water. 
Pour  a  Uttle  of  this  iodine  solution  into  each  of  the  starch  pastes.  What 
happens?  Try  a  few  drops  in  the  salt  solution;  in  the  sugar  solution. 
Has  it  the  same  effect  on  these  as  on  the  starch?     (Plate  V.) 

Starch  is  turned  blue  by  iodine.  Since  no  other  substance 
is  affected  in  this  way,  iodine  serves  as  a  test  for  starch. 

D.  Add  a  drop  or  two  of  iodine  solution  to  the  white  substance  obtained 
from  the  potato.  What  do  you  think  it  is?  Test  a  slice  of  potato  for 
starch. 

1  Analysis  (plural,  analyses)  means  separation  into  parts.  Chemists  have 
made  complete  analyses  of  all  kinds  of  foods.  We  can  make  only  rough 
analyses  of  a  few  foods,  and  test  them  for  the  substances  contained  in 
them  in  considerable  quantities. 


62 


THEORY  AND  PRACTICE  OF  COOKERY 


Composition  of  Potato  as  Shown  by  Rough  Analysis 


1.   Plant      fibre 
(partly 
cellulose). 

Similar  to  fibre  of  wood.     Forms 
walls  of  cells,  or  little  divi- 
sions, in  the  potato. 

Too  tough  to  be 
digested ;  there- 
fore of  little  food 
value. 

2.   Water. 

About  75  %  of  the  weight  of  the 
potato.    Fills  cells. 

3.   Starch. 

White  insoluble  powder  floating 
in  water  in  cells ;  with  boiling 
water  forms  a  jellylike  paste. 

The  chief  foodstuff 
in  potatoes. 

Potatoes  also  contain 


4.  More  mineral 
matter 
than  most 
other  foods. 


Lying  mostly  just  beneath  the 
skin. 


5.   Other   substa 
value. 


nces  in  such  small  quantities  as 


to  be  of  little  food 


To  find  out  how  much  water  a  potato  contains,  pare 
and  weigh  it.  Lay  it  in  a  warm,  dry  place,  weighing  it 
every  day  until  it  ceases  to  lose  weight  by  evaporation 
of  its  moisture.  Compare  the  final  weight  with  what  it 
weighed  at  first.  The  difference  between  these  shows  how 
much  water  the  potato  contained. 

To  show  mineral  matter  in  potatoes,  heat  a  bit  of  potato 
in  a  crucible  or  evaporating  dish  over  a  Bunsen  burner  till 
only  gray  ashes  are  left. 


SOME  STARCHY  PLANTS  63 

Experiment  to  show  the  relation  between  the  sprouting  of  a  potato  and 
its  composition.  —  Let  a  potato  lie  in  a  dark,  warm  place  until  it  sprouts. 
Bring  it  to  the  Hght  from  time  to  time  and  observe  the  growth  of  the 
sprouts,  also  any  change  in  the  size  of  the  potato.  What  do  you  think  the 
sprouts  feed  on?  Would  a  sprouted  potato  be  as  nutritious  as  an  im- 
sprouted  one? 

How  to  choose  and  keep  potatoes.  —  The  tuber  is  a  store- 
house of  starch  for  the  nourishment  of  the  young  shoot.  In 
potatoes  dug  too  early  the  starch  is  immature  or  unripe. 
In  those  kept  too  long  after  digging  the  starch  has  been 
partly  changed  to  gum,  a  substance  more  serviceable  than 
starch  to  the  growing  plant,  but  not  so  nutritious  for  man. 

Potatoes  are  best  (fullest  of  starch)  in  the  fall  and  winter. 
Select  those  of  regular  shape,  of  medium  size,  and  with 
smooth  skin.  A  bushel  of  very  large  potatoes  gives  the 
purchaser  less  than  a  bushel  of  smaller  ones,  which  pack 
more  closely.  Green  bitter  spots  are  caused  by  the  pota- 
toes' being  grown  too  near  the  surface  of  the  ground.  Keep 
them  in  a  cool,  dry  place.     If  sprouts  appear  pick  them  off. 

Economy  in  paring  and  cooking  potatoes.  —  Is  the  skin 
of  a  potato  thick  in  proportion  to  the  eatable  part  ?  Do  we 
need  to  take  off  a  thick  paring  ? 

By  experiment  it  has  been  found  that  potatoes  pared 
before  being  boiled  lose  much  of  their  food  value  during 
cooking ;  for  nearly  one-fifth  of  the  mineral  matter,  with 
some  other  soluble  substances,  and  a  little  starch,  passes 
into  the  cooking  water.  The  longer  the  potatoes  lie  in 
water  before  they  are  cooked,  the  greater  is  this  loss.  New 
potatoes  are  best  cooked  in  their  "  jackets."  Any  but  im- 
perfect  or   very  old   potatoes  may  be  cooked  this  way. 


64      THEORY  AND  PRACTICE  OF  COOKERY 

They  will  not  be  as  white  as  if  they  had  been  pared  before 
cooking;  but  if  one  wishes  to  be  economical,  food-value 
should  not  be  sacrificed  to  appearance.  Old  potatoes  may 
have  to  be  soaked  to  restore  water  lost  by  drying.  Always 
pare  potatoes  thinly,  and  take  out  eyes  with  the  point  of 
the  knife.  To  make  the  loss  from  pared  potatoes  as  small 
as  possible,  put  them  at  once  into  boiling  water  and  as 
quickly  as  possible  bring  it  to  the  boiling-point  again. 

HOW  TO   COOK  POTATOES 

1.  Potatoes  must  be  cooked  till  soft  all  through.  Hard 
compact  granules  of  raw  starch,  enclosed  by  walls  of  woody 
fibre,  are  not  easily  acted  upon  by  the  digestive  juices.  The 
object  of  cooking  potatoes  is  to  soften  and  break  open  these 
cell-walls  and  to  soften  and  swell  the  starch. 

2.  Rapidly  boiling  water  wears  off  the  outside  of  the 
potato  before  the  middle  is  cooked.     Let  it  bubble  gently. 

3.  If  the  outside  of  large  potatoes  becomes  soft  while  the 
centres  are  still  hard,  add  one  pint  of  cold  water.  Enough 
heat  remains  inside  of  the  potatoes  to  finish  cooking  them. 

4.  Since  potatoes  contain  more  than  sufficient  water  to 
soften  the  starch  in  them,  they  may  be  baked.  The  excess 
of  water  is  changed  to  steam  during  cooking,  leaving  the 
starch  dry  and  flaky.  If  allowed  to  recondense,  the  starch 
reabsorbs  it,  making  the  potatoes  "  soggy  '^  instead  of 
^'  mealy,''  as  they  should  be.  Potatoes  allowed  to  stand 
in  water  after  they  are  cooked  through  absorb  some  of  the 
cooking  water  with  the  same  result.     What  precautions  do 


SOME  STARCHY  PLANTS  65 

we  take  to  avoid  this?  (See  recipes  for  Boiled  and  Baked 
Potatoes.) 

5.  Potatoes  baked  in  a  slow  oven  become  dry  and  hard. 
Quickly  baked  potatoes  are  more  easily  digested  than  boiled 
potatoes  ;  slowly  baked  ones,  less  so. 

6.  Unusually  large  potatoes  may  be  halved  for  baking. 

RiCED  Potato 
Press   boiled   potatoes   through   a   coarse   strainer   or   a 
vegetable  press  into  a  hot  dish. 

Mashed  Potato 
Mash  potatoes  (boiled  without  their  skins)  in  the  kettle 
in  which  they  were  cooked,  using  a  fork  or  a  wire  potato- 
masher.     When   free   from   lumps,    add   for   each   pint   of 
mashed  potato  or  four  medium-sized  potatoes 

1  tb.  of  butter,  melted  in 

I  c.  of  scalded  milk, 

J  to  ^  t.  of  salt,  and 

I  teaspoonful  of  white  pepper.^ 

Beat  all  together  until  light  and  creamy.  Heap  in  a  dish 
without  smoothing  the  top.  It  may  be  put  in  a  baking- 
dish,  the  top  brushed  with  milk,  and  browned  in  a  hot  oven. 

Creamed  Potatoes 

Cut  cold  boiled  potatoes  into  one-half  inch  cubes ;  put 

these  into  a  saucepan,  nearly  cover  them  with  milk,  and 

cook  gently  until  nearly  all  the  milk  is  absorbed.     Add 

^  Many  people  prefer  white  pepper  on  potatoes,  in  white  sauce,  and  in 
any  other  food  where  black  pepper  would  show  distinctly. 

F 


66      THEORY  AND  PRACTICE  OF  COOKERY 

white  sauce,  stir  for  one  minute,  sprinkle  with  finely  cut 
parsley/  and  serve. 


White  Sauce  (for  Vegetables)  ^ 

Butter,  2  tb.  Salt  ^  t,      \     . 

Flour,  2  tb.  Pepper,  it./ "^^^ 

Milk,  1  c. 


Rub  flour  and  butter  together  with  a  spoon  in  a  small 
saucepan.  Add  milk,  and  stir  steadily  over  a  moderate 
heat  until  the  sauce  boils.     Add  salt  and  pepper. 

For  richer  white  sauce  use  part  cream.  Cream  sauce  is 
white  sauce  made  with  all  cream  instead  of  milk.  Use  one 
and  one-half  teaspoonfuls  of  flour  to  one  cupful  of  cream. 

Sweet  Potatoes 

Sweet  potatoes  are  best  baked.  If  to  be  boiled,  leave  the 
skins  on,  pare  after  cooking,  and  dry  for  a  few  minutes  in 
a  moderate  oven.     They  may  be  riced. 

Food  value  of  potatoes.  —  Potatoes  contain  foodstuffs 
which  meat  lacks.  Eaten  with  meat,  they  form  an  impor- 
tant article  of  diet,  and  one  we  do  not  tire  of,  particularly 
if  they  be  cooked  in  a  variety  of  ways.  Sweet  potatoes  are 
more  nutritious  than  white.  They  contain  sugar  in  addition 
to  the  foodstuffs  found  in  white  potatoes. 

^  To  cut  parsley.  —  Pick  off  several  sprigs ;  if  wet,  dry  with  a  clean 
towel.  Hold  them  in  a  firm  bunch  on  a  board  or  plate,  and  cut  them 
through  and  through,  repeating  until  very  fine. 

2  This  recipe  makes  one  cup  of  sauce,  enough  for  four  moderate-sized 
potatoes,  or  one  pint  of  potato  cubes. 


PLATE  V. 


Cold  Oatmeal  molded  and  garnished  with  Sliced  Bananas. 


Iodine  Test  for  Starch. 
Diluted  tincture  of  iodine  in  one  test-tube,  starch-paste  stained  by  iodine  in  the  other. 


SOME  STARCHY  PLANTS  67 

Brief  Reference  List 

For  further  development  of  topics  treated  in  this  section 
see :  — 

U.  S.  Dept,  of  Agriculture  :  Farmers'  Bulletins :  256.  Preparation  of 
vegetables  for  the  table ;  295.  Potatoes  and  other  root  crops  as  food ; 
324.  Sweet  potatoes. 

Ward  :  Grocer's  encyclopedia. 

Wiley:  Foods  and  their  adulteration.    Pp.  288-305. 

Sherman  :  Food  products.    P.  319. 

Section  2.    Starch 
sources  of  starch 

Experiments.  —  A.  Put  one  heaping  tablespoonful  of  cracked  or  rolled 
oats  with  about  one  cupful  of  cold  water  in  a  small  bowl ;  rub  the  oatmeal 
between  your  thumb  and  fingers  for  a  few  minutes,  and  observe  the  effect 
on  the  water.    Fill  a  small  test-tube  (a)  with  the  water  and  set  it  aside. 

B.  Half  fill  another  test-tube  (b)  with  the  water  and  boil  it.  Compare 
the  paste  formed  with  that  from  potato  starch  (p.  61).  Add  a  drop  of 
iodine  solution.     What  substance  does  oatmeal  contain? 

C.  Soak  rolled  wheat,  corn-meal,  tapioca,  rice,  or  any  preparation  used 
for  breakfast  mush,  as  you  did  oatmeal  in  Exp.  A ;  boil  the  water,  and  test 
it  for  starch.  Is  there  any  substance  common  to  all  these  foods?  What  is 
it? 

D.  Test  any  or  all  of  the  following  substances  for  starch :  ^  —  flour, 
milk,  fish,  white  of  egg,  cabbage,  meat  (in  order  to  see  the  color,  use 
cooked  chicken,  lamb,  or  veal),  apple,  turnip.  Do  any  of  the  animal  foods 
contain  starch?  Do  all  the  vegetable  foods  contain  starch?  Explain  why 
flour  is  used  to  thicken  white  sauce. 

E.  Pour  off  the  water  in  test-tube  a  and  dry  the  powder  found  at  the 
bottom.  Can  you  distinguish  it  in  appearance  and  feeling  from  potato 
starch  ? 

1  Simply  test  with  diluted  tincture  of  iodine  without  adding  water  or 
heating. 


68      THEORY  AND  PRACTICE  OF  COOKERY 

All  green  plants  contain  more  or  less  starch.  They  make 
it  out  of  water  and  carbon  and  store  it  up  in  root,  stem,  or 
some  other  part,  in  the  autumn,  to  nourish  the  young  shoots 
in  the  spring.  Plants  obtain  carbon  from  the  carbon  dioxide 
in  the  air.     How  do  they  obtain  water  ? 

Most  of  the  starch  we  use  is  obtained  from  corn  (maize), 
potatoes,  wheat,  and  rice.  It  is  a  fine  white  glistening 
powder,  insoluble  in  cold  water,  but  partially  soluble  in  hot 
water,  with  which  it  forms  a  jellylike  paste.  It  is  turned 
intensely  blue  by  iodine. 

A  STUDY  OF  STARCH 

Starch  under  the  microscope.  —  Under  the  microscope 
starch  is  seen  to  consist  of  irregularly  shaped  granules 
formed  of  layers  folded  around  a  central  point.  Starches 
from  different  plants  differ  from  one  another;  granules  of 
potato  starch  are  larger  than  those  of  any  other  kind  and 
something  like  oyster  shells  in  shape  and  marking.  Rice 
starch  granules  are  angular  and  very  small.  When  cooked, 
the  granules  lose  their  distinctive  appearance. 

Experiments  showing  how  to  prevent  starch  from  lumping  while  cook- 
ing. —  A.  Pour  about  two  tablespoonfuls  of  boiling  water  upon  one  tea- 
spoonful  of  dry  cornstarch,  stirring  as  you  pour.  What  happens?  Break 
open  one  of  the  lumps.  What  do  you  find  inside?  Would  pouring  boihng 
water  upon  starch  be  a  good  way  to  cook  it?    Why  not? 

When  boiling  water  is  poured  upon  dry  starch,  lumps 
form,  because  the  starch  first  touched  by  the  hot  water 
swells  suddenly,  forming  a  sticky  envelope  around  the  rest, 
thus  keeping  it  from  swelling. 


SOME  STARCHY  PLANTS  69 

B.  Repeat  Experiment  A,  mixing  one-half  tablespoonful  of  granulated 
sugar  with  the  starch  before  stirring  in  water.     Result? 

Explanation.  —  The  grains  of  sugar,  by  separating  the  starch  granules, 
give  the  granules  room  to  swell  and  thicken  the  Uquid  smoothly. 

C.  Repeat  Experiment  A,  mixing  one-half  tablespoonful  of  cold  water 
with  the  starch.     Note  result  and  explain. 

D.  Mix  one-half  tablespoonful  of  starch  with  one-half  tablespoonful 
of  butter  or  other  fat,  add  two  tablespoonfuls  of  cold  water,  and  cook, 
stirring  until  the  mixture  thickens.     Result? 

Starch  cooked  with  water  forms  a  paste.-^ 

Starch  used  to  thicken  sauces.  —  Starch  is  used  to 
thicken  liquid  in  making  sauces  and  gravies.  In  what 
three  ways  may  lumping  be  avoided?  Which  of  these 
ways  is  used  in  making  white  sauce? 

Starch,  dextrin,  and  caramel.  —  Starch,  heated  dry, 
changes  to  dextrin,  which  is  soluble  in  cold  water.  In 
browned  flour  part  of  the  starch  has  undergone  this  change, 
lessening  the  thickening  property  of  the  flour,  and  at  the 
same  time  part  of  the  dextrin  has  been  further  changed  to 
caramel,  which  causes  the  brown  color.  The  brown  crust 
under  the  skin  of  baked  potatoes  is  largely  caramel  and 
dextrin.  A  temperature  of  320°  F.  is  required  to  dextrinize 
starch.   Explain  why  dextrin  is  not  formed  in  boiled  potatoes. 

Experiments  in  heating  starch  dry.  —  A.  Heat  about  one  tablespoonful 
of  starch  in  a  test-tube  (or  on  a  small  tin  pan  kept  for  use  in  experiments). 
When  brown,  take  out  part  of  it  and  test  it  for  starch,  (1)  by  heating  with 
water,  (2)  by  adding  iodine. 

B.  Continue  to  heat  the  rest  of  the  starch  in  a  test-tube,  until  black. 
What  is  the  black  substance?  What  do  you  observe  on  the  sides  of  the 
test-tube? 

^  The  starch  takes  up  the  water  in  such  a  way  that  we  cannot  drive  off 
the  water  and  leave  the  starch  as  it  was  before. 


70      THEORY  AND  PRACTICE  OF  COOKERY 

Composition  of  starch.  —  Starch  is  composed  of  carbon, 
oxygen,  and  hydrogen.  When  heated,  the  two  last  pass 
off  as  water,  leaving  the  carbon. 

Digestion  of  starch.  —  Food  after  being  eaten  undergoes 
many  changes  before  it  can  be  absorbed  by  the  body.  This 
process  of  change  we  call  digestion.  One  important  step 
in  digestion  is  to  make  all  insoluble  foodstuffs  soluble 
foodstuffs.  Saliva  begins  to  digest  starch  in  the  mouth. 
Some  of  it  is  here  changed  first  to  dextrin  and  then  to 
maltose,  a  kind  of  sugar.  The  saliva  continues  to  act  on  it 
for  a  time  in  the  stomach.  Starch  digestion  is  completed 
in  the  small  intestine. 

A  substance  in  saliva,  called  amylase,^  causes  this  change 
(p.  131).  The  test  for  maltose  is  Fehling's  solution,^  which 
forms  with  it  a  reddish  or  orange-colored  substance. 

Experiment  to  show  the  action  of  saliva  on  starch.  —  Make  a  thin  starch 
paste  (about  one-half  teaspoonful  of  starch  to  three  or  four  tablespoonfuls 
of  water).  Cool  it  to  the  temperature  of  the  hand.  Divide  this  between 
two  test-tubes;  in  a  third  collect  some  saUva.  Pour  part  of  the  saUva 
into  one  of  the  tubes  of  starch  paste.  Add  a  few  drops  of  Fehling's  solu- 
tion and  boil.  Note  the  color.  For  comparison  treat  first  starch 
solution  and  then  saliva  in  the  same  way.  Do  either  of  these  change 
color?  Does  either  sahva  or  starch  alone  contain  maltose?  Explain  the 
presence  of  this  sugar  in  the  mixture  of  starch  and  sahva. 

STARCH  AS  A  FUEL  FOR  THE  BODY 

The  work  of  the  body.  —  How  does  eating  help  to  keep 
us  alive  ?     Life  involves  activity ;  work,  play,  activity  of 

1  Sometimes  called  ptyalin. 

2  A  mixture  of  copper  sulphate,  caustic  potash  or  soda,  and  Rochelle 
salts. 


SOME  STARCHY  PLANTS  71 

any  sort,  makes  us  hungry ;  food  gives  us  energy  to  go  on 
working  and  playing.  Any  activity  that  uses  up  energy  is, 
in  the  scientific  sense,  work.  Your  muscles  work  as  hard 
in  playing  a  game  as  in  going  on  an  errand ;  and  just  as 
truly  does  the  heart  work  in  pumping  blood,  the  stomach 
in  digesting  food,  the  brain  and  nerves  in  giving  rise  to 
thought  and  feeling. 

What  else  does  food  do  for  us  ?  Breathe  on  your  fingers ; 
your  breath  is  warm.    Evidently  heat  is  produced  in  the  body. 

Experiment. — Blow  into  lime-water  through  a  glass  tube  for  a  min- 
ute or  two.  What  is  the  effect  on  the  lime-water  ?  In  what  other  way 
have  you  produced  the  same  effect  ?  (p.  5.)  What  gas  must  there  be 
in  your  breath  ? 

Air  from  the  lungs  and  air  in  which  something  has  been  burned  both 
turn  lime-water  cloudy,  because  both  contain  carbon  dioxide.  A  slow 
burning  goes  on  in  the  body  all  the  time.  The  oxygen  in  the  air  we 
breathe  in  unites  with  substances  in  the  body.  Carbon  dioxide  is 
formed  and  goes  back  through  the  lungs  into  the  air. 

This  process  of  slow  combustion  is  necessary  to  the  life  of  both  plants  ^ 
and  animals.    Without  oxygen,  life  would  go  out  as  a  flame  does. 

The  body  compared  to  a  steam-engine.  —  Just  as  heat 
and  mechanical  power  are  produced  by  burning  fuel  under 
the  boiler  of  a  steam-engine,  so  energy  and  heat  are  pro- 
duced by  the  oxidation  of  food  in  the  tissues  of  the  body. 
Starch  slowly  oxidized  in  the  body  gives  off  just  as  much 
heat  and  energy  as  if  burnt  {i.e.,  rapidly  oxidized)  in  the  air. 
Thus  food  serves  as  fuel  to  warm  the  body  and  to  keep  its 

1  Plants  breathe  through  theu*  leaves,  taking  in  oxygen  and  giving  off 
carbon  dioxide,  night  and  day.  The  making  of  starch,  during  which  the 
plant  takes  in  carbon  dioxide,  is  a  distinct  process,  which  goes  on  only  in 
the  light  (p.  68). 


72      THEORY  AND  PRACTICE  OF  QOOKERY 

machinery  running,  and  its  oxidation,  as  in  the  case  of  other 
fuels,  gives  rise  to  carbon  dioxide,  water,  and  also  to  waste 
products  corresponding  to  the  ash  of  coal  or  wood.  Ordi- 
narily the  oxidation  of  food  for  the  production  of  energy 
supplies  all  the  heat  the  body  needs.  Only  to  meet  an 
extra  demand  is  food  used  expressly  for  warmth.  How  is 
oxygen  taken  into  the  body?  What  combustible  elements 
does  starch  contain?  What  other  kinds  of  slow  oxidation 
do  you  know  of?  (p.  34.)  i 

The  body,  unlike  an  engine,  repairs  itself.  —  A  steam- 
engine  differs  from  the  body,  however,  in  one  important 
respect,  —  it  cannot  repair  itself.  No  fuel  we  can  feed  it 
with  will  stop  a  leak  in  the  boiler  or  restore  a  missing  rivet ; 
but  food  renews  the  tissues  of  the  body  as  fast  as  they  wear 
out,  making  bone,  nerve,  muscle,  and  skin  for  us  continually. 
Then,  too,  in  a  steam-engine,  fuel  and  air  meet  and  unite  in  one 
place,  whereas  in  the  body  combustion  goes  on  in  all  its  parts. 

Carbohydrates.  —  Starch  is  one  of  a  class  of  foodstuffs 
called  carbohydrates.  As  the  name  indicates,  carbohydrates 
are  composed  of  carbon  and  of  hydrogen  and  oxygen  in  the 
right  proportions  to  form  water.  They  are  good  fuel  foods. 
They  cannot,  however,  build  tissue,  except  fatty  tissue,  which 
is  stored-up  fuel  rather  than  living  tissue,  such  as  muscle  is. 

Experiment.  —  Throw  a  bit  of  butter  or  lard  and  a  bit  of  starch  on  the 
fire  and  see  which  burns  best. 

Fat  contains  the  same  three  elements  that  carbohydrates 
do,  but  the  proportion  of  oxygen  is  much  smaller.  Hence 
it  unites  with  more  oxygen  and  so  burns  better. 


SOME  STARCHY  PLANTS  73 

Brief  Reference  List 

For  further  development  of  topics  treated  in  this  section 
see :  — 

Bevier  and  Van  Meter  :  Selection  and  preparation  of  food.    Pp.  48-52. 

Thorpe  :  Dictionary  of  applied  chemistry.    V.  4,  p.  149. 

Sherman  :  Food  products.    Pp.  7-10,  259-263. 

BiGELOw:  Applied  biology.    Pp.  191-196. 

Ritchie  :  Primer  of  physiology.    Ch.  15,  Foods  and  why  we  need  them. 

FoRSTER  AND  Weigley  :  Foods  and  sanitation. 

Section  3.    Cereals;   Breakfast  Foods 

Cereals,  or  grains,  are  grasses,  the  seeds  of  which  are 
used  for  food ;  among  the  most  important  are  wheat, 
Indian-corn  or  maize,  oats,  rice,  rye,  and  barley.  From 
these  are  prepared  various  breakfast  foods,  —  oatmeal, 
wheatena,  and  others,  besides  corn-meal  and  other  prepa- 
rations sometimes  served  for  breakfast. 

Cereals  compared  with  potatoes.  —  Cereals,  like  potatoes, 
contain  starch.  How  may  we  prove  this?  If  they  were 
like  potatoes  in  other  respects,  they  could  be  cooked  in 
much  the  same  way.  Unlike  potatoes,  however,  they  do 
not  contain  nearly  enough  water  to  soften  the  starch,  and 
must,  therefore,  be  so  cooked  that  they  can  absorb  more. 
All  except  rice  contain  much  woody  fibre  tougher  than  that 
in  potatoes,  and  so  need  longer  cooking. 

Breakfast  cereals  may  be  either  boiled  or  dry-steamed. 
Steaming  is  the  slower  process,  because  the  food  in  the 
upper  part  of  the  double  boiler  never  quite  reaches  212°  F.  ; 
but  is  preferable,  since  it  insures  even  cooking  of  the  cereal, 


74      THEORY  AND  PRACTICE  OF  COOKERY 

prevents  it  from  wasting  or  drying  upon  the  vessel,  as  it 
does  when  a  saucepan  is  used,  and  makes  stirring  unnecessary. 

How  to  use  a  double  boiler.  —  Fill  the  lower  part  one- 
third  full  of  boiling  water,  and  keep  it  boiling.  Add  more 
boiling  water  from  time  to  time,  if  needed,  to  keep  it  one- 
third  full.  If  allowed  to  stand  over  the  fire,  for  even  a 
short  time,  without  water  in  the  lower  part,  the  boiler  will 
become  leaky  and  useless.  Keep  the  two  handles  of  the 
boiler  in  line,  so  that  both  parts  may  be  readily  lifted  to- 
gether. 

See  that  both  parts  are  dry  before  putting  them  away. 

A  home-made  double  boiler  may  be  contrived  by  setting 
one  saucepan  inside  of  another. 

Steamed  Whole  Oatmeal 
Oatmeal,  1  c.  Salt,  1 1. 

Water,  4  c. 

Put  the  water,  with  the  salt,  in  the  upper  part  of  the 
double  boiler,  and  set  it  directly  over  the  heat.  When  it 
boils,  stir  in  the  oatmeal,  put  the  two  parts  of  the  boiler 
together,  and  cook  overnight,  or  six  hours  by  a  day  fire. 
Reheat  in  the  morning.  Or,  soak  the  oatmeal  in  the  water 
for  several  hours,  add  the  salt,  and  steam  for  three  hours. 

Boiled  Rice 

(To  be  served  as  a  vegetable  in  place  of  potatoes) 

Rice,  1  c.  Salt,  1 1. 

Water,  2  qt.  (or  more). 

Put  the  water  in  a  saucepan  to  boil.  Pick  over  and  wash 
the  rice.     When  the  water  boils  rapidly,  drop  in  the  rice  — 


SOME  STARCHY  PLANTS  75 

slowly,  so  as  not  to  stop  the  boiling.  If  the  grains  settle  to 
the  bottom,  stir  once  or  twice  with  a  fork.  Boil  rapidly, 
uncovered;  from  twenty  to  thirty  minutes,  or  until  the 
grains  can  be  crushed  between  thumb  and  finger ;  add  the 
salt  when  nearly  done.  Then  turn  into  a  strainer  to  drain, 
rinse  with  hot  water,  and  dry  in  the  serving-dish  in  the 
oven  (with  the  door  open)  for  a  few  minutes.  Each  grain 
should  be  white,  soft,  and  distinct,  the  motion  of  the  water 
keeping  them  separate,  and  the  washing  and  rinsing  remov- 
ing loose  starch  that  would  tend  to  stick  them  together. 

To  wash  rice.  —  Put  it  in  a  colander  or  strainer,  and  set 
this  in  a  bowl  of  cold  water ;  rub  the  rice  with  the  hands ; 
change  the  water,  repeating  until  it  is  clear.  Or,  wash  in  a 
strainer  under  running  water. 

BreaMast-foods.  —  The  starch  in  so-called  "  steam- 
cooked  "  cereals  is  not  really  cooked.  Steaming  softens 
the  grains,  however,  so  that  the  starch  cooks  more  quickly 
than  that  in  raw  cereals.  If  you  have  to  burn  fuel  on  pur- 
pose to  cook  cereals,  steam-cooked  ones  may  be  more 
economical,  although  their  cost  per  pound  is  gre&,ter  and 
their  weight  includes  the  water  absorbed  in  steaming. 
Package  breakfast-foods  are  cleaner  than  those  sold  in  bulk. 

In  good  rice,  the  grains  are  of  good  size  and  unbroken, 
and  keep  their  shape  when  cooked.  Corn-meal  and  hominy 
spoil  quickly ;  purchase  them  in  small  quantities.  If  you 
are  troubled  with  mice  or  insects,  keep  cereals  in  jars  or  cans. 

Fruit  with  cereals.  —  Try  serving  fruit  with  cereals  :  — 

1.  Serve  berries,  apple  sauce,  sliced  peaches,  or  sliced 
well-ripened  bananas  in  the  saucer  with  the  mush.     2.    Stir 


76      THEORY  AND  PRACTICE  OF  COOKERY 

figs  or  dates,  cut  in  pieces,  into  mush  before  serving  it. 
(Especially  good  with  farina.)  The  mush  may  be  molded 
with  the  fruit  in  it.  3.  Serve  cold  molded  cereals  with 
peaches  or  bananas,  sliced.  (Plate  V,  facing  p.  67.)  4. 
Serve  baked  bananas  on  separate  plates.  (For  recipe  see 
p.  234.) 

DIRECTIONS   FOR  COOKING  CEREALS 

1.  Stir  the  cereal  gradually  into  the  required  quantity  of 
boiling  salted  water,  and  cook  over  hot  water  until  done. 
(See  table  on  p.  79.) 

2.  To  save  time  and  fuel,  soak  uncooked  cereals  (Irish 
oats,  cracked  wheat,  hominy,  etc.)  in  cold  water  before  cook- 
ing. Those  requiring  more  than  one  hour  to  cook  should 
be  cooked  the  day  before  they  are  to  be  eaten  and  reheated 
in  the  morning.  If  necessary  to  hasten  the  cooking  of  a 
cereal,  boil  it  from  fifteen  to  thirty  minutes,  then  steam 
until  done. 

3.  Cook  steam-cooked  cereals,  as  a  rule,  twice  as  long  as 
is  directed  on  the  package.  Only  by  long  cooking  are 
cereals  made  wholesome  and  well-flavored ;  undercooked, 
as  most  people  eat  them,  they  occasion  sickness  often  laid 
to  other  causes. 

4.  Stir  coarse,  flaky  cereals  as  little  as  possible.  Fine, 
granular  cereals  may  be  beaten.  To  keep  these  fine  cereals 
from  lumping,  mix  them  with  cold  water  instead  of  sprink- 
ling them  dry  into  boiling  water. 

5.  Cereals  should  absorb  all  the  water  they  are  cooked 
in ;  if  too  moist  when  nearly  done,  cook  uncovered  for  a 
time. 


SOME  STARCHY  PLANTS 


77 


Protein  :1 0.0  Protein:  12 


Fat:  1.7 


Fat..4.3 


.   .  1  c     x^^      y  Carbohydrates: 73.4  Carbohydrates: 73.7    x^^    ^     a   u.  i  g 

FUCL  VALUE:  FuEL  VALUE: 

■■I  BUCKWHEAT  jj^Hi 


U.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture 

Office  of  Experiment  Stations 

A.  C.  True:  Director 


Prepared  by 
C.  F.  LANGWORTHY 
Expert  in  Charge  of  Nutrition  Investigations 


COMPOSITION  OF  FOOD  MATERIALS. 


Protein  Fat         Carbohydrates        Ash 

CORN 


Water 


I  Fuel  Value 
/fe  Sq. In. Equals 
1000  Calories 


WHEAT 


■Water:  10.8 


Water:10.6 


Water:12.6       1 750  calories 
Fat: 2.2  per  pound 


1800  calories       Protein:  10.0. 

PER  POUND  Q^^^ 

hydrates :73.2"'^^^^^^^     Ash:  2.0 
Fuel  value: 
jjjjj^l 

-Water:  11.0         1600  calories      Water:12.0 
Fat:  5.0--J1— Protein:  11. 8         ''''''''     Protein  :-3:0~~ 


•V|  Carbo- 
.   .   .  «    W  hydrates: 69.2 
Ash:3.0— Jil/      ' 

Fat:  1.5 
Fuel  value: 


1 720  calories 
ber  pound 


RICE 


_     _  Carbo-  .... 

*^^^         hydrates :  77.0  p^ 


Water:  10.5 
Protein:  12.2 


Fat:2.0 


^^— Ash:1.0 


Fuel  value; 


Carb( 
hydrates: 73.9  \J^ — ^Ash:1.9 

Fuel  value: 


1750  calories 
PER  pound 


1 7*20  calories 

PER  pound 


Chart  1. 


78      THEORY  AND  PRACTICE  OF  COOKERY 

6.  To  improve  rice,  farina,  or  hominy,  stir  in  one-quarter 
of  a  cupful  of  milk  about  fifteen  minutes  before  taking  from 
the  fire,  and  leave  the  cover  off  during  the  rest  of  the  time. 

Food  value  of  cereals.  —  Cereals  are  the  most  important 
of  vegetable  foods.  From  the  plains  of  northern  Europe 
and  Asia,  where  barley  grows  in  a  climate  too  cold  for  other 
grains,  to  the  rice-fields  of  India  and  our  Southern  states, 
man  depends  on  some  cereal  for  his  daily  bread.  One 
reason  for  this  is  that  they  contain  in  varying  proportions 
all  the  kinds  of  foodstuffs  necessary  to  support  life.  Con- 
taining so  much  starch  as  they  do  (50  to  75  %),  they  are 
valuable  chiefly  as  fuel  foods.  Oatmeal  and  corn-meal 
have  more  fat  than  other  grains,  and  so  are  especially  good 
winter  foods.  Oatmeal  is  richer  in  food  material,  but  on 
account  of  its  indigestible  fibre,  less  easily  digestible,  except 
for  hard-working  people,  than  other  grains.  Rice  as  com- 
monly sold  is  almost  pure  starch.^  As  it  contains  no  fat, 
we  eat  butter  or  cream  with  it. 

HELPFUL   HINTS  ABOUT   BREAKFAST   CEREALS 

1.  Avoid  eating  undercooked  cereals. 

2.  Have  cooked  cereal  stiff  enough  to  be  chewed.  If  too 
soft,  it  is  swallowed  without  being  mixed  with  saliva. 

3.  Sugar,  a  carbohydrate,  is  not   needed  with   cereals ; 

1  Rice  naturally  has  a  brownish  skin  containing  protein  and  mineral 
matter,  but  by  "  polishing  "  this  skin  is  removed.  Except  for  people  who 
live  chiefly  on  rice  this  loss  is  not  serious.  Polished  rice  is  often  coated 
with  talc  or  glucose.  So-called  "  unpolished  rice  "  is  often  merely  uncoated, 
not  unpolished,  but  natural  brown  rice  (unpolished)  can  be  obtained  from 
certain  dealers. 


SOME  STARCHY  PLANTS 


79 


milk  and  cream,  on  the  other  hand,  supply  fat  and  other 
foodstuffs  of  which  cereals  have  little. 


Table  Showing  Time  of  Cooking,  and  Proportions  of  Salt  and 
Water,  for  Breakfast  Cereals 


2S  « 

CUPPULS  OP 

Kind 

R   <?   a 

Water 

TO  One  Cupful 

OP  Cereal 

Method 

OP 

Cooking 

Time  op  Cooking, 
IN  Hours 

Oatmeal  (Raw)  .     .     . 

1 

4 

Steam. 

If  soaked,  3; 
if  not,  6  or 
more. 

Oatmeal  (Steam- 

cooked),  Rolled  Oats, 

H-0,  etc 

If  or  2 

steam. 

1  or  more. 

Rice 

8  or  more. 

Boil. 

i 

Rice 

n 

Steam. 

1 

Wheat  (Rolled  and 

Steam-cooked)      .     . 

u 

Steam. 

1 

Indian  Meal  .... 

61 

Boil. 

If  soaked,  3 ; 
if  not,  6. 

Hominy 

4 

Steam. 

If  soaked,  2; 
if  not,  4. 

Wheaten  Grits    .     .     . 

3    (or   if   soaked 
over    night     in 
1   cup   of    cold 
water,    add    2| 
cups  of  boiling 
water) . 

Steam. 

If  soaked,  2; 
if  not,  3. 

Farina  and  other   fine 

wheat  preparations  . 

1 

4 

Steam. 

lto3 

1  If  the  meal  is  sprinkled  in  dry,  continue  adding  it  until  it  begins  to 
float ;  after  that,  add  no  more. 


80      THEORY  AND  PRACTICE  OF  COOKERY 

Maize,    commonly   called    corn,    is   native   to   America. 

Immense  crops  of  it  are  raised  in  the  middle  West  every 

year.     It  probably  yields  more  products  than  any  other 

cereal.     Among  these  are  meal,  flour,  starch,  syrup,  and 

oil.     White  and  yellow  corn-meal  are  equally  nutritious,  and 

if  well-cooked,  quite  digestible.     Adding  wheat  flour  makes 

cornbread  lighter. 

Brief  Reference  List 

For  further  development  of  topics  treated  in  this  section 
see :  — 

Ward:  Grocer's  encyclopedia.      (Article  on   cereals  and  articles  on  the 

different  cereals.) 
Earle  :  Home  life  in  colonial  days.     Ch.  6,  Indian  corn. 
Wiley  :  Foods  and  their  adulteration.    Pp.  217-272. 
U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agriculture  :  Farmers'  Bulletins :  298.  Food  value  of 

com  and  corn-products;    249.   Cereal  breakfast  foods;    559.  Use  of 

corn,  kaffir,  and  cow-peas  in  the  home ;   565.  Commeal  as  a  food  and 

ways  of  using  it. 
Michigan  Experiment  Station:  Bulletin  211.    Breakfast  foods. 
Jordan  :  Human  nutrition.     P.  304,  Breakfast  foods. 
Cornell  University  :  Cornell  reading  course.    V.  3,  pp.  86-103,  Rice  and 

rice  cookery. 
Sherman  :  Food  products.    Ch.  8,  Grain  products. 

Section  4.    Wheat,  the  King  of  Cereals 

Wheat  is  capable  of  cultivation  in  a  greater  variety  of 
soils  and  climates  than  any  other  grain,  and  is  also  better 
suited  for  bread-making  and  for  use  as  a  constant  article 
of  diet.     It  has  been  called  '^  the  King  of  Cereals.'^ 

A   STUDY   OF   WHEAT.  —  PART   I 

A.  Note  the  elliptical  scar  at  the  base  of  a  wheat  grain.  This  shows 
where  the  germ,  or  embryo,  Ues,  from  which  the  seedling  springs. 


SOME  STARCHY  PLANTS  81 

B.  Crush  a  few  grains  of  wheat,  moisten  them  with  boiUng  water,  and 
test  them  for  starch. 

If  sprouted  grains  ^  be  tested  for  starch,  much  of  it  will 
be  found  to  have  disappeared,  and,  under  the  microscope, 
the  granules  left  will  appear  rough,  as  if  eaten  into.. 

How  the  seedling  is  fed.  —  What  has  become  of  the 
starch?  We  have  before  seen  that  Nature  is  careful  to 
provide  food  for  baby  plants.  In  what  part  of  the  potato 
plant  is  starch  stored?  What  connection  is  there  between 
that  part  of  the  plant  from  which  the  young  plant  springs 
and  the  location  of  the  food  supply  ? 

The  plant,  like  the  human  body,  cannot  make  use  of 
starch  until  it  is  digested.  In  what  does  the  digestion  of 
starch  consist?  This  digestion  in  grains  is  effected  by 
diastase,  a  substance  developed  in  the  seed  during  sprout- 
ing. What  animal  substance  do  you  know  of  that  can 
effect  this  change  ? 

Kinds  of  wheat.  —  Wheat  is  called  winter  wheat  or  spring 
wheat,  according  to  whether  it  is  best  suited  to  being  sown 
in  autumn  or  in  spring.  Wheat  that  endures  the  cold  and 
dampness  of  winter  is  soft  and  starchy ;  wheat  that  comes 
up  quickly  in  sunny  spring  weather  is  hard.  Even  spring 
wheat  is  soft  in  a  rainy,  cold  season.  These  two  sorts  of 
wheat  produce  quite  different  kinds  of  flour,  as  you  will 
learn  in  the  next  chapter. 

Harvesting.  —  Where  wheat  can  be  sown  in  the  autumn, 

1  Wheat  and  other  cereals  may  be  grown  in  earth  or  sawdust,  or  on 
moist  blotting  paper  laid  on  a  plate  and  covered  with  a  glass  jar  or  cheese- 
dish  cover. 


82      THEORY  AND  PRACTICE  OF  COOKERY 

it  ripens  in  early  summer ;  in  the  most  Northern  states  not 
till  autumn.  When  the  ears  are  heavy  and  golden,  it  is  cut 
down  and  bound  into  shocks.  The  grains  are  threshed  out 
of  the  husks  and  sent  to  market.  Until  recently  this  work 
was  done  mostly  by  hand,  but  now  steam-reapers,  binders, 
and  threshers  are  common  on  the  great  farms  in  the  wheat 
regions. 

Home-work.  —  Grow  different  kinds  of  grain  at  home  in  different  ways ; 
make  drawings  of  the  seedlings  in  different  stages  of  growth. 

Brief  Reference  List 

For  further  development  of  topics  treated  in  this  section 
see :  — 

Edgar  :  Story  of  a  grain  of  wheat. 

Ward  :  Grocer's  encyclopedia. 

Sherman  :  Food  products. 

Washburn-Crosby  Company:  Wheat  and  flour  primer. 


CHAPTER  III 
EGGS    AND    MILK 

Section  1.    Eggs;  Albumin 

A  hen's  egg  consists  of  shell,  two  layers  of  white,  yolk, 
and  two  membranes,  one  a  silky  skin  between  shell  and  white, 
the  other,  so  thin  as  to  be  invisible,  between  white  and  yolk. 
Two  twisted  cords  of  white  extending  from  this  inner  mem- 
brane hold  the  yolk  in  place.  The  little  mass  in  the  yolk  is 
the  embryo  from  which  the  chicken  grows,  just  as  the  seed- 
ling grows  from  the  embryo  of  the  seed.  The  contents 
of  the  egg,  like  the  seed-contents,  nourish  the  develop- 
ing embryo ;  when  ready  to  be  hatched,  the  chick  has 
absorbed  all  of  these  contents,  and  part  of  the  shell.  The 
egg  is  a  perfect  food  for  an  unhatched  chicken,  as  starch  is 
for  a  seedling. 

Eggs  should  have  hard  shells  and  deep  yellow  yolks. 
The  color  of  the  shell  does  not  matter.  For  the  wholesale 
market,  eggs  are  sorted  and  small  eggs  bring  a  lower  price. 
Fresh  eggs  have  a  delicate  flavor  and  almost  no  odor.  The 
white  and  yolk  are  distinct  and  easily  separated. 

THE  CARE  AND  PRESERVATION  OF  EGGS 

Eggs  should  be  laid  in  clean  nests  and  kept  clean.  As 
the  shells  are  porous,  washing  may  contaminate  the  eggs. 

83 


84      THEORY  AND  PRACTICE  OF  COOKERY 

But  of  course,  dirty  eggs  must  be  washed,  and  any  egg  may 
be  wiped  with  a  clean  damp  cloth  just  before  being  broken. 
Eggs  spoil  because  of  bacterial  growth  in  them.  Even  new- 
laid  eggs  contain  some  bacteria.  Eggs  keep  losing  water 
by  evaporation  through  the  shells.  Air  enters  to  take  its 
place,  and  with  the  air  bacteria.  (Explain  why  a  stale  egg 
often  rattles,  and  why  a  very  stale  one  may  float.)  Clean 
eggs  kept  cool  remain  for  a  week  or  more  practically  as  good 
as  when  laid.  But  gradually  they  develop  an  unpleasant 
taste  and  odor,  and  the  yolk  clouds  the  white.  Eggs  not 
quite  fresh  enough  to  taste  good  cooked  by  themselves  are 
all  right  for  other  uses.  No  housekeeper  will  use  really 
bad  eggs,  but  unless  the  government  prevents  their  sale, 
we  are  in  danger  of  eating  such  eggs  in  cakes  and  other  foods 
made  by  unscrupulous  bakers  and  manufacturers. 

As  hens  lay  best  in  spring  and  early  summer,  it  is  neces- 
sary to  preserve  some  eggs  for  winter  use.  One  way  of 
doing  this  is  to  seal  the  pores  of  the  shells  against  bacteria. 
The  best  covering  is  a  solution  of  water-glass.  This  method 
can  be  used  at  home. 

The  second  method  is  cold  storage,  used  by  dealers.  Eggs 
do  not  freeze  at  32°  F.,  and  at  this  temperature,  although 
some  changes  take  place,  they  remain  fit  for  use  for  several 
months. 

Experiment  to  find  out  the  best  temperature  for  cooking  eggs.  —  Cook 
one  egg  (o)  in  boiling  water  for  three  minutes ;  another  (b)  in  boiling  water 
for  ten  minutes;  put  a  third  (c)  into  boiling  water  enough  to  cover  it 
(about  one  pint  in  a  small  saucepan),  remove  the  saucepan  from  the  fire, 
and  let  it  stand  covered  on  the  table  from  six  to  ten  minutes.  Break  the 
eggs  and  compare  their  contents.    In  which  is  the  white  hard  and  the 


EGGS  AND  MILK  85 

yolk  unchanged?    In  which  is  the  white  hard  and  the  yolk  sticky  or 
partly  dry?    In  which  is  the  white  a  tender  jeUy  and  the  yolk  thick? 

An  egg  put  into  boiling  water  and  removed  from  the  heat 
iS;  at  the  end  of  about  ten  minutes,  evenly  cooked  through, 
the  temperature  of  the  water  falling  during  this  time  to  about 
168°  F.     The  temperature  of  the  egg  averages  about  185°  F. 

Experiments.  —  Put  a  Uttle  white-of-egg  in  a  test-tube ;  hold  the  test- 
tube  and  chemical  thermometer  in  a  vessel  of  water.  Heat  the  water 
gradually.  How  does  the  white-of-egg  look  at  150°  F.  ?  at  180°  ?  Stir 
with  glass  rod  or  a  stick  to  show  degree  of  sohdity.  Note  appearance  and 
degree  of  solidity  at  212°.  Keep  the  water  boiling  for  several  minutes; 
then  take  out  some  of  the  white-of-egg  and  examine  it. 

ALBUMIN.     PROTEIN 

White-of-egg  consists  chiefly  of  water  and  a  substance 
called  albumin  (from  a  word  meaning  white).  Albumin  in 
its  natural  state  is  clear  and  soluble  in  water.  In  white-of- 
egg  it  seems  sticky  because  enclosed  by  invisible  cell-walls. 
When  the  white-of-egg  is  heated,  the  albumin  hardens,  or 
coagulates.^ 

Albumin  is  one  of  a  class  of  foodstuffs  called  proteins,  or 
collectively  "protein. 

How  did  we  show  that  starch  contained  carbon,  hydrogen, 
and  oxygen?  (pp.  69-70.)  We  can  prove  in  the  same  way 
that  albumin  contains  these  three  elements.  Let  us  see  if 
albumin  contains  any  element  not  found  in  starch. 

^  Yolk  albumin  coagulates  at  a  lower  temperature  than  white  albu- 
min. In  a  "three-minute"  boiled  egg,  however,  the  white  is  hard  and 
the  yolk  nearly  or  quite  raw,  the  heat  not  having  had  time  to  penetrate 
to  the  centre  of  the  egg. 


86      THEORY  AND  PRACTICE  OF  COOKERY 

Experiment.  —  Heat  some  dried  white-of-egg  (albumin)  with  a  little 
lime  in  a  test-tube.    Note  odor  of  ammonia  which  comes  off. 

Ammonia  contains  nitrogen.  There  is  no  nitrogen  in 
lime.  Therefore  the  nitrogen  must  have  come  from  the 
albumin.  The  presence  of  nitrogen  in  any  protein  may  be 
shown  by  heating  it  with  lime.  A  test  for  nitrogen  in  food 
is  a  test  for  protein. 

Another  test  for  protein  is  nitric  acid  (p.  151). 

All  proteins  contain  nitrogen.  —  Proteins  may  serve  as 
fuel,  like  carbohydrates,  but  besides  this  they  do  what 
carbohydrates  cannot  do.  They  build  living  tissues,  such 
as  muscle,  blood,  nerves.  Without  nitrogen  they  could  not 
do  this.  This  tissue-building  power  associated  with  nitro- 
gen makes  proteins  so  different  from  other  foodstuffs  that 
writers  have  sometimes  divided  all  foodstuffs  into  two 
classes,  nitrogenous  and  non-nitrogenous.  The  importance 
of  protein  is  suggested  by  its  name,  which  comes  from  a  word 
meaning  "  first."  Foods  containing  considerable  protein  are 
called  protein  foods. 

Digestion  of  albumin ;  gastric  juice.  —  The  digestion 
of  albumin  begins  in  the  stomach,  which  secretes  for  the  pur- 
pose a  fluid  called  gastric  juice,  containing  pepsin  and 
hydrochloric  acid.  Gastric  juice  softens  solid  proteins  such 
as  cooked  white-of-egg  and  changes  all  proteins  into  new 
substances.     (For  completion  of  process,  see  Chap.  15.) 

Experiments  to  show  how  eggs  are  digested.  —  Label  three  test-tubes 
a,  b,  and  c,  respectively.  Into  a  put  about  one  teaspoonful  of  the  finely- 
chopped  white  of  a  hard-boiled  egg;  into  b  an  equal  quantity  of  the 
chopped  white  of  a  soft-cooked  egg  (see  recipe),  and  into  c  a  piece  of  hard- 


EGGS  AND  MILK 


87 


U.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture 

Office  of  Experiment  Stations 

A.  C.  True:  Director 


Prepared  by 

C.  F.  LANGWORTHY 

Expert  in  Charge  of  Nutrition  Investigations 


COMPOSITION  OF  FOOD  MATERIALS. 


Protein  Fat         Carbohydrates 

WHOLE  EGG 


Protein: 

14 
Fat:  10.5 
Ash:1.0 

Fuel  value  of 

whole  egg: 


Protein:!  3.0 


Fat:  0.2 


700   CALORIES 
PER  POUND 


CREAM  CHEESE 

Water:  34. 


Fuel  value  of  yolk: 


1 608     CALORIES 
PER  POUND 


^Ash:0.6 
Fuel  value  of  white: 

c 

265   CALORIES 
PER  POUND 


Protein:  25.9 


COTTAGE  CHEESE 


Water:  72.0 


arbo- 

yd rates:  2.4 


Protein:  20.9 


Ash:  3.8 


Fuel  value; 
1950  calories  per  pound 


Carbo^_____^PmyM^ — Fat:  1 .0 
hydrates: 4.3      ^^ssss^^e:---.^^^^,  ^  g 

Fuel  value; 

E 

510    CALORIES  PER  POUND 


Chart  2. 


88      THEORY  AND  PRACTICE  OF  COOKERY 

boiled  white,  not  chopped.    Half  fill  the  test-tubes  with  pepsin  and  dilute 
hydrochloric  acid/  and  set  them  in  warm  water  (about  98°  F.). 

At  the  end  of  an  hour  and  a  half  examine  them.  In  which  has  the 
white-of-egg  been  most  rapidly  hquefied,  i.e.,  digested?  After  five  or  six 
hours  look  at  them  again.  If  any  of  the  egg  is  still  undigested  set  it 
aside  and  look  at  it  again  the  next  day.  Does  white-of-egg  digest  more 
quickly  in  one  piece  or  chopped?  Which  digests  more  quickly,  hard- 
boiled  or  soft-cooked  albumin? 

Eggs  are  completely  digestible.  They  contain  no  waste. 
They  are  most  quickly  and  easily  acted  upon  by  gastric 
juice  when  cooked  at  a  temperature  not  higher  than  180. 
They  are  probably  hardest  to  digest  when  fried. 

Composition  and  food  value  of  eggs.  —  Eggs  are  about 
three-fourths  water.  But  of  the  nutritive  material  in  them 
more  than  half  is  protein.  This  makes  them  one  of  the 
richest  of  protein  foods,  and  so  one  of  the  most  valuable  as 
a  tissue-builder.  The  mineral  matter  includes  valuable 
compounds  of  calcium,  iron,  and  phosphorus.  One-third 
of  the  yolk  is  fat  in  the  form  of  oil.  What  class  of  food- 
stuffs do  eggs  lack?  What  foods  commonly  eaten  with 
eggs  supply  this  lack? 

Make  a  table  showing  the  composition  of  eggs  similar  to  that  showing 
the  composition  of  potatoes  on  p.  62.  Potatoes  contain  a  httle  albumin. 
It  shows  as  froth  on  the  water  squeezed  out  of  them,  and  coagulates  if 
the  water  be  boiled.  Try  this,  and  if  you  observe  the  albumin,  note  it 
in  your  potato  table. 

SoPT-cooKED  Eggs 

For  two  eggs  allow  one  pint  of  water ;  for  each  additional 

egg  three-fourths  of  a  cup  of  water  additional.     Put  the 

1  A  digestive  juice  similar  to  that  in  the  stomach  may  be  made  from 
1.1  parts  of  pepsin  and  7.5  parts  of  hydrochloric  acid  to  500  parts  of  water. 


EGGS  AND  MILK  89 

water  in  a  saucepan,  let  it  come  to  the  boiling-point,  lower 
the  eggs  into  it  with  a  spoon,  remove  at  once  from  the  fire, 
and  let  stand  covered  about  ten  minutes.  The  fewer  the 
number  of  eggs  to  be  cooked,  the  smaller  should  be  the 
saucepan,  in  order  that  the  smaller  quantity  of  water  may 
cover  them. 

To  Toast  Bread 

Cut  stale  bread  (at  least  two  days  old)  into  slices 
one-third  of  an  inch  thick.  Trim  off  the  crusts,  leaving 
the  slices  rectangular;  lay  the  bread  in  a  toaster,  and 
hold  over  a  bright  coal  fire,  turning  frequently  in  order 
that  both  sides  may  brown  alike.  Hold  the  bread  well 
above  the  fire  at  first,  to  dry  it ;  then  nearer,  until  both 
sides  are  an  even  golden  brown.  Bread  may  be  toasted 
on  the  grid  in  the  broiling  oven  of  a  gas-stove.  Toast  thus 
made  is  usually  dry  all  through.  It  requires  close  watch- 
ing to  prevent  burning.  A  variety  of  contrivances  for 
toasting  over  a  top  burner  are  on  the  market. 

An  electric  toaster  to  be  used  on  the  breakfast  table  is  a 
convenience  in  a  house  provided  with  electric  current. 

Toast  may  be  buttered  at  once,  but  is  more  wholesome  if 
buttered  as  it  is  eaten.  Serve  on  a  doily,  on  a  hot  plate, 
uncovered. 

Water  toast.  —  Dip  the  toasted  slices  quickly  into  boil- 
ing salted  water  (half  a  teaspoonful  of  salt  to  one  cupful 
of  water),  using  a  fork.  Spread  with  softened  butter  ^  and 
serve  at  once. 

1  To  soften  butter  work  it  with  a  spoon  or  knife  in  a  warmed  bowl 
if  necessary. 


90      THEORY  AND  PRACTICE  OF  COOKERY 

Eggs  Dropped  on  Toast 

Prepare  squares  or  circles  (cut  with  a  muffin  ring)  of 
water  toast ;  arrange  on  a  platter.  On  each  break  carefully 
a  soft-cooked  egg,  keeping  the  yolk  whole  and  in  the  centre 
of  the  slice  of  toast ;  sprinkle  a  little  salt,  and  a  tiny  bit  of 
white  pepper,  on  each  yolk,  and  serve.     (Plate  VII.) 

Breaking  and  separating  eggs.  —  To  break  an  egg, 
hold  it  in  the  left  hand  and  crack  the  shell  by  striking  it 
sharply  with  a  knife ;  then  put  your  thumbs  together  at 
the  crack,  and   gently  break  the  shell  apart.     (Plate  VI.) 

To  separate  the  yolk  from  the  white,  hold  the  egg  upright 
while  breaking  the  shell  apart,  so  that  the  yolk  will  remain 
in  one  half  of  the  shell :  slip  the  yolk  from  one  piece  of  shell 
to  the  other  several  times,  letting  the  white  run  over  the 
edge  into  a  bowl  or  plate.  Caution.  —  When  using  several 
eggs,  if  you  are  not  sure  of  their  freshness,  break  each  singly 
into  a  cup,  and  examine  it  before  adding  it  to  the  rest. 

Beating  eggs ;  distinction  between  beating,  stirring,  and 
folding. — Beat  yolks  in  a  bowl  with  a  fork  or  a  Dover 
beater ;  beat  whites  in  a  bowl  with  a  Dover  beater,  or  on 
a  deep  plate  or  platter  with  a  fork  or  wire  whisk. 
Whites  are  beaten  stiff  when  a  knife-cut  made  in  the 
mass  does  not  close ;  dry,  when  the  gloss  is  gone  from 
them,  and  flaky  bits  fly  off  as  you  beat.  Yolks  well  beaten 
are  thick  and  much  lighter  colored  than  before  beating. 

Eggs  are  beaten  slightly  (^.e.,  until  the  white  and  yolk 
are  mingled)  to  make  them  smooth  and  creamy,  for  French 
omelet,  custards,  and  some  sauces.     They  are  beaten  till 


9»B 


EGGS  AND  MILK  91 

light  to  entangle  air  in  fine  bubbles  in  the  albumin.  Can 
you  beat  in  more  air  by  beating  the  whole  egg  or  by  beating 
the  white  separately  from  the  yolk?  To  beat  with  a  spoon 
or  fork,  carry  it  swiftly  through  the  material,  tilting  the 
dish  so  that  the  material  will  be  ''  flopped  '^  over  at  each 
stroke.  To  stir,  move  the  spoon  steadily  in  a  widening  circle. 
To  fold  one  ingredient  into  another,  put  the  spoon  in  edge- 
wise, lift  the  ingredients,  and  turn  them  over ;  repeat  until 
thoroughly  mixed.  Avoid  stirring  after  beating  or  fold- 
ing.    Why  ? 

Eqq  in  a  Nest 

Separate  the  white  of  an  egg  from  the  yolk.     Beat  the 

white  stiff  and  dry  ;  put  it  in  a  cup  or  small  bowl,  making  in 

the  top  of  it  a  hollow  the  size  of  the  yolk ;  into  this  hollow 

slip  the  yolk.     Cook  in  a  covered  saucepan  containing  boiling 

water  until  the  top  of  the  white  is  firm  (about  two  minutes). 

Serve  in  the  cup. 

French  Omelet 
Eggs,  4.  Salt,  ^  to  i  t. 

Water,  4  tb.  Pepper,  f.g. 

Butter,  1  tb. 

Beat  the  eggs  lightly  (about  twelve  strokes  with  a  fork), 
add  water,  salt,  and  pepper.  Melt  the  butter  in  a  hot 
omelet-pan  without  letting  it  brown.  Turn  in  the  eggs, 
shake  pan  gently,  and  as  the  egg  thickens  lift  it  lightly  with 
a  palette  knife,  letting  the  uncooked  part  run  underneath. 
The  omelet  should  slip  on  the  pan  without  sticking  any- 
where. When  it  is  creamy  all  through,  roll  it  up,  rolling 
toward  the  left  side  of  the  pan.  Hold  a  hot  platter  over  the 
edge  of  the  pan,  and  turn  pan  and  platter  over,  so  that  the 


92      THEORY  AND  PRACTICE  OF  COOKERY 

omelet  will  fall  in  the  centre  of  the  platter ;  or  lift  it  out  on 

two   broad   knives.     Garnish   with   parsley,    and   serve    at 

once;  if  it  stands,  it  will  fall. 

The  omelet  is  puffed  up  with  steam  from  the  moisture 

in  the  eggs  and  the  water  added  to  them.     What  happens 

to  steam  when  it  cools?     What  will  be  the  effect  on  the 

omelet  ? 

Fancy  Omelets 

French  Omelet  may  have  spread  over  it,  before  it  is 
folded,  a  rounded  teaspoonful  of  fine-cut  parsley,  a  few 
teaspoonfuls  of  chopped  ham  or  other  cooked  meat,  or  of 
grated  cheese.  Or  cooked,  chopped  oysters  or  clams  may 
be  used,  or  peas  or  tomatoes,  —  almost  any  cooked  food ; 
in  fact,  this  is  a  good  way  to  utilize  "  left-overs."  These 
fancy  omelets  are  named  according  to  the  ingredient 
added,  Cheese  Omelet,  Ham  Omelet,  etc.  Have  the  filling 
hot  when  put  into  the  omelet. 

Cup  Custards 
Scalded  milk,  1  qt.  Sugar,  J  c. 

Eggs,  4  Salt,  i  t. 

Nutmeg. 

Beat  the  eggs  slightly,  stir  in  the  sugar  and  salt,  then, 
slowly,  the  hot  milk.  When  the  sugar  has  dissolved,  pour 
into  cups  (about  six),  and  grate  a  little  nutmeg  over  each  cup. 
Set  the  cups  in  a  pan  of  hot  water,  and  bake  in  a  moder- 
ate oven  until  a  pointed  knife  inserted  in  the  custards 
comes  clean.     Do  not  let  the  water  in  the  pan  boil.     Why  ? 

The  custard  may  be  baked  in  one  large  dish,  but  it  is 
harder  to  bake  it  evenly. 


EGGS  AND  MILK  93 

Brief  Reference  List 

For  further  development  of  topics  treated  in  this  section 
see :  — 

Sherman  :  Food  products.    Ch.  5,  Eggs. 
Ward  :  Grocer's  encyclopedia. 
Olsen  :  Pure  foods.     Pp.  118,  138, 163. 

U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agriculture  :   Farmers'  Bulletins:  128.  Eggs  and  their 
uses  as  food ;  87.  Food  value  of  eggs. 

Section  2.    Milk;  Butter;  Cheese 

What  the  seed  is  for  the  seedling,  and  the  egg  for  the 
unhatched  chick,  the  milk  of  an  animal  is  for  its  young  — 
that  is,  a  perfect  food.  Why  it  comes  nearer  than  eggs  do 
to  being  a  perfect  food  for  any  human  being  we  shall  see 
when  we  have  found  out  its  composition. 

A   STUDY   OF  MILK 

Analysis  of  milk ;  experiments.  —  A.  With  a  spoon  remove  the  cream 
from  one  pint  of  milk  that  has  stood  overnight.  Drop  a  little  of  the  cream 
on  unglazed  paper.  Examine  the  paper  after  it  has  dried  for  a  time. 
Can  you  tell  from  the  spot  one  foodstuff  that  is  present  in  milk? 

B.  Test  a  little  of  the  milk  with  iodine.     Is  there  any  starch  in  milk? 

C.  Boil  the  rest  of  the  milk.  What  do  you  see  on  the  top  of  it  ?  What 
do  you  think  this  skin  is?  Is  there  water  in  milk?  Air?  How  do  you 
know? 

D.  Remove  the  skin  and  put  a  httle  of  the  milk  in  a  test-tube.  Add 
a  few  drops  of  vinegar.  What  happens?  Strain  the  milk  through  a  cloth, 
and  examine  the  solid  substance  (curd)  and  the  watery  hquid  (whey). 

E.  Shake  a  little  white-of-egg  and  water  together  in  a  test-tube ;  add 
a  few  drops  of  vinegar,  and  note  the  coagulation. 

F.  Dry  some  of  the  milk-curd,  heat  it  with  lime,  and  note  the  odor  of 
ammonia.    What  must  the  curd  contaiu? 


94 


THEORY  AND  PRACTICE  OF  COOKERY 


U.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture 

Office  of  Experiment  Stations 

A.  C.  True:  Director 


Prepared  by 

C.  F.  LAN6W0RTHY 

Expert  in  Charge  of  Nutrition  Investigations 


COMPOSITION  OF  FOOD  MATERIALS. 


^ 


Protein 


Fat         Carbohydrates         Ash 


Water 


Fuel  Value 
feSq. In. Equals 
1000  Calories 


WHOLE  MILK 


SKIMMILK 


Fat:4.0- 
Ash:0.7- 


-Water:  87.0 

-Protein:  3.3       Fat:  0.3- 
Ash:0.7 


-Water:  90.5 
Protein:  3.4 


c 


Carbohydrates:  5.0 


Fuel  value-.  310  calories  per  pound 


BUTTERMILK 


Carbohydrates:5.1 

c 

Fuel  value:  165  calories  per  pound 


CREAM 


Fat:  0.5 
Ash:  0.7 


-Water:  91 .0 

Proteln:3,0    Fat:  18.5 
Ash:0.5 


Carbohydrates;  4.8 

c 

Fuel  value:  160  calories  per  pound  Fuel  value:  865  calories  per  pound 


Water:  74.0 
Protein:  2.5 


Carbohydrates:  4.5 


Chart  3. 


EGGS  AND  MILK  95 

Composition  of  milk.  —  Cow's  milk  contains  fat,  albu- 
min,  and  a  substance  which  is  coagulated  by  vinegar  but  not 
by  heat.  This  is  casein,  ^  a  protein.  Milk  also  contains  a 
carbohydrate,  milk-sugar,  or  lactose,  and  mineral  matter. 
All  of  these  except  the  fat  are  dissolved  in  water,^  which 
forms  almost  nine-tenths  the  bulk  of  the  milk.  Name  one 
element  contained  in  casein  that  is  lacking  in  milk-sugar. 
What  difference  does  this  make  in  its  work  in  the  body? 

Food  value  of  milk.  —  Milk  serves  all  the  purposes  of  food 
and  drink.  The  protein  in  it  builds  all  kinds  of  tissue. 
The  protein,  fat,  and  sugar  all  give  heat  and  energy,  and  if 
not  needed  for  the  immediate  use  of  the  body  they  may  be 
changed  into  fatty  tissue.  The  mineral  matter  supplies 
calcium  to  harden  bones  and  tissues,  and  phosphorus,  some 
of  which  helps  to  build  the  nerves  and  brain.  Some  of  the 
phosphorus  is  combined  with  casein.  One  can  live  upon 
milk  for  a  long  time.  It  is  a  good  food  to  grow  on,  and  it 
does  not  produce  some  of  the  acid  and  poisonous  waste  that 
meat  does.  We  should  do  well  to  use  more  milk  and  less 
meat.  (See  pp.  142-143.)  Mention  some  foods  com- 
monly eaten  with  milk.  What  foodstuff  or  foodstuffs, 
lacking  in  milk,  do  these  foods  supply?  Remember  that 
milk  is  food,  not  drink  merely ;  less  of  other  food  is  needed 
at  a  meal  with  which  milk  is  drunk.  Drink  it  slowly. 
It  is  more  readily  digested  when  taken  in  sips. 

^  Coagulated  casein,  when  dried,  is  a  hard,  horny,  yellow  solid.  It 
can  be  so  toughened  as  to  resemble  celluloid,  a  state  in  which  it  is  made 
into  buttons  and  similar  articles. 

2  The  albumin  is  in  true  solution,  the  casein  in  partial  solution  only. 
In  this  state  it  is  called  by  chemists  caseinogen  (casein-maker). 


96      THEORY  AND  PRACTICE  OF  COOKERY 

What  good  whole  milk  should  be.  —  Fresh,  unskimmed 
milk  should  be  creamy  white,  and  cream  should  rise  on 
standing.  There  should  be  no  dirt  nor  other  sediment  in  it. 
Milk  is  one  of  the  hardest  foods  to  keep  clean,  pure,  and 
sweet.  It  may  look  all  right  and  yet  be  unfit  for  food.  In 
most  places  where  the  milk  sold  comes  from  a  distance,  the 
law  requires  it  to  be  up  to  a  certain  standard  of  quality 
and  purity.     Only  bottled  milk  is  safe  to  buy  in  cities. 

Skim  milk.  —  Skim  milk  is  much  cheaper  than  whole 
milk.  Of  course  it  contains  little  fat,  but  it  contains  more 
protein,  sugar,  and  mineral  matter  than  an  equal  quantity 
of  whole  milk. 

Care  of  milk.  —  Put  milk  as  soon  as  you  get  it  in  the 
coolest  place  you  have.  Wipe  the  mouth  of  the  bottle 
before  removing  the  cap.  After  pouring  out  what  milk  you 
need,  cover  the  bottle,  and  set  it  away.  Do  not  mix  old  milk 
with  new.     Keep  milk  away  from  anything  with  an  odor. 

Souring  of  milk.  —  G  (continued  from  page  93) .  Let  fresh  milk 
stand  in  a  warm  room  24  hours,  or  until  it  thickens.  Stir  it,  and  notice 
the  separation  of  the  curd  from  the  whey.  What  substance,  added  to  milk, 
makes  it  separate  like  this?    Taste  the  milk.    How  does  it  taste ? 

Sour  milk.  Lactic  acid.  —  When  milk  is  kept  at  the  ordi- 
nary temperature,  some  of  its  sugar  turns  into  lactic  acid 
(milk  acid),  which  gives  the  milk  a  sour  taste,  and  like  the 
acid  of  vinegar,  coagulates  the  casein.  As  butter  is  usually 
made  from  sour  cream  (p.  100),  buttermilk  is  sour.  Either 
buttermilk  or  milk  purposely  soured  by  a  special  process 
makes  a  good  drink,  better  for  some  people  than  sweet  milk. 
(See  Fermented  milks,  p.  332.) 


EGGS  AND  MILK  97 

Bacteria  in  milk.  —  The  formation  of  lactic  acid  from  milk- 
sugar  is  caused  by  the  action  of  certain  bacteria  called 
lactic  acid  bacteria.  Other  kinds  of  bacteria  spoil  it  in 
other  ways,  producing  sliminess,  bad  odor,  and  other  un- 
pleasant effects.  A  few  of  these  bacteria  are  disease  germs. 
Bacteria  grow  rapidly  in  milk  at  ordinary  temperatures. 
They  get  into  it  from  unclean  surroundings  and  from  the 
air.  Therefore  in  order  to  have  milk  when  delivered  as  free  as 
possible  from  bacteria,  it  must  be  drawn  in  a  cleanly  way, 
cooled,  and  kept  cold  in  clean  vessels  protected  from  the 
air. 

Pasteurization  is  a  process  in  which  milk  is  heated  and 
then  rapidly  cooled.  Its  purpose  is  to  kill  any  disease 
germs  that  may  be  present  and  to  reduce  the  number  of 
other  microorganisms  without  injuring  the  taste  or  lessen- 
ing the  food  value  of  the  milk.  The  process  is  named  after 
Pasteur,  the  eminent  French  bacteriologist.  Pasteuriza- 
tion cannot  make  dirty  milk  clean.  It  can  make  clean  milk 
safe.  Properly  pasteurized  milk  will  keep  longer  than  un- 
pasteurized milk.  It  sours  in  time  because  not  all  the  lactic 
acid  forming  bacteria  have  been  killed. 

Home  pasteurization.  —  Pasteurize  the  milk  in  bottles 
before  opening.  Pasteurizers  may  be  bought,  but  one  can 
be  contrived  more  cheaply.  You  will  need  a  pail  or  kettle, 
a  tin  pie-plate,  an  accurate  thermometer,  and  a  clean  bath- 
towel  or  other  thick  cloth.  Punch  a  few  holes  in  the  pie- 
plate,  and  put  it  upside  down  in  the  kettle,  to  keep  the 
bottles  from  touching  the  bottom.  Punch  a  hole  through 
the  cap  of  one  of  the  bottles,  and  insert  the  thermometer. 
Set  the  bottles  on  the  plate  in  the  pail,  and  fill  the  pail  with 
water  nearly  to  the  level  of  the  milk.  Heat  until  the  ther- 
mometer  registers    145°   F.-^    Remove   the   bottles.     Take 

1  The  temperature  may  go  to  150°  F.  without  harm,  but  no  higher. 

H 


98      THEORY  AND  PRACTICE  OF  COOKERY 

out  the  thermometer.  Replace  the  punctured  cap  by  a 
whole  one.  Cover  the  bottles  closely  with  the  cloth  and 
let  them  stand  from  twenty  to  thirty  minutes.  Cool  quickly 
by  placing  them  in  water.  Have  the  water  warm  at  first 
and  run  cold  water  into  it  to  avoid  breaking  the  bottles. 
After  cooling,  keep  them  on  ice  or  in  the  coldest  place  you 
have.  Pasteurized  milk  requires  the  same  care  as  raw 
milk.     (For  more  about  milk  see  pp.  314,  315.) 

Cottage  Cheese 

Thick  sour  milk,  1  qt.  Salt,  i  t. 

Butter,  2  t.  Cream,  enough  to  make  cheese  as 

moist  as  desired. 

Heat  the  milk  in  a  pan  set  on  the  back  of  the  stove  or 
set  into  another  pan  of  hot  water ;  as  soon  as  the  curd  sepa- 
rates from  the  whey,  strain  the  milk  through  a  cloth. 
Squeeze  the  curd  in  the  cloth  until  rather  dry.  Put  in  a 
bowl,  and  with  a  spoon  mix  it  to  a  smooth  paste  with  the 
butter,  salt,  and  cream.     Serve  lightly  heaped  up. 

Action  of  rennet  on  milk.  —  A  different  kind  of  coagu- 
lation of  casein  is  produced  by  rennet,  a  substance  prepared 
from  the  lining  of  a  calf^s  stomach.  Rennet  is  sold  for  use 
either  in  an  alcohol  solution  {"  liquid  rennet  '0  or  in  tablets, 
often  called  junket  tablets. 

Rennet  Custard  or  Junket 

Milk,  1  qt.  Extract  of  vanilla,  1 1. 

Sugar,  I  c. 

Liquid  rennet,  1  tb. 

or 

1  junket  tablet  dissolved  in  1  tb.  of  water. 


EGGS  AND  MILK  99 

Heat  the  milk  in  a  double  boiler  until  it  is  lukewarm. 
Add  the  sugar  and  stir  until  it  is  dissolved.  Stir  in  the 
vanilla  and  rennet,  and  pour  it  into  glass  cups.  Let  it 
stand  in  a  warm  room  until  it  begins  to  thicken ;  then  set 
it  in  a  cool  place,  and  leave  it  until  it  is  firm.  Sprinkle 
with  one-eighth  teaspoonful  of  cinnamon  or  nutmeg,  and 
serve  with  cream  (or  milk)  and  sugar. 

To  make  Coffee  Rennet  Custard,  use  two  and  three-fourths 
cupfuls  of  milk  and  add  one  and  one-fourth  cupfuls  of 
strong,  cold  coffee  after  taking  from  fire.  Use  one-fourth 
to  one-half  cupful  of  sugar. 

Does  the  curd  formed  by  rennet  differ  in  any  way  from 
that  formed  by  an  acid?  If  so,  how?  Does  curdling 
make  milk  sour,  or  does  souring  make  it  curdle? 

Digestion  of  milk.  —  Rennin,  the  ferment  that  gives 
rennet  its  power  to  coagulate  milk,  is  secreted  by  the  human 
stomach,  as  by  the  calf's,  to  prepare  milk  for  digestion. 

If  milk  is  poured  rapidly  into  the  stomach,  it  forms  with 
rennin  a  thick  mass  of  curd.  If  it  trickles  in,  it  forms  a 
flaky  curd,  much  more  easily  digested.  (For  Digestion  of 
Albumin,  see  p.  86,  for  Digestion  of  Sugar,  pp.  269  and  370.) 

BUTTER 

Cream.  —  Fat  naturally  exists  in  milk  in  little  spheres  or 
globules  about  i^oo"  ^^  ^^  inoh.  in  diameter.  When  fat  or 
oil  is  suspended  in  this  way  in  a  liquid  it  is  said  to  be 
emulsified. 

Experiment  to  illustrate  emulsion.  —  Shake  some  lime-water  and  linseed 
oil  together  in  a  bottle ;  hold  the  bottle  still  and  observe  the  oil  globules  rise. 


100     THEORY  AND  PRACTICE  OF  COOKERY 

The  fat  globules,  being  lighter  than  the  rest  of  the  milk, 
tend  to  rise  to  the  top  as  cream. 

Making  butter.  —  If  cream  be  vigorously  beaten  or 
churned,  the  globules  lose  their  shape  and  stick  together, 
forming  butter.  Some  of  the  casein  clings  to  them.  This 
should  be  washed  out,  as  it  decomposes  easily.  Butter  is 
salted  to  protect  it  further  from  spoiling.  It  is  usually 
packed  in  wooden  tubs  for  market.  Butter  molded  in 
^^  prints  ^^  for  immediate  table  use  is  made  less  salt  than 
tub  butter.  '^  Sweet ''  butter  contains  no  salt  and  sells  at 
a  high  price. 

Milk  from  grass-fed  cows  makes  yellow  butter,  but  most 
butter  comes  so  pale  a  color  that  it  has  to  be  colored  for 
market.  The  coloring  used  is  harmless.  Good  butter  is 
firm,  not  crumbly,  and  yields  little  water  when  pressed. 

Experiments.  —  A.  Butter-making.  —  Put  half  a  cupful  of  thick  cream 
into  a  small  bowl  and  beat  it  with  a  Dover  egg-beater  until  it  separates 
into  buttermilk  and  specks  of  butter.  Gather  the  butter  into  a  lump,  and 
after  pressing  out  as  much  of  the  buttermilk  as  you  can,  wash  the  butter 
under  a  stream  of  cold  water.  Work  with  a  wooden  spoon  to  remove  the 
water,  and  add  a  few  grains  of  salt.  Dip  butter-spatters  into  hot  water, 
then  into  cold,  and  with  them  roll  the  butter  into  a  ball.  (Plate  VI, 
facing  p.  90.)     Use  sweet  or  sour  cream. 

B.  Test  for  butter.  —  Heat  in  separate  dishes  butter,  butterine  or 
oleomargarine,  and  renovated  butter.  Butter  boils  quietly,  producing 
considerable  foam.    The  others  sputter,  but  foam  httle. 

Butter  is  usually  made  from  ripened  cream ;  that  is,  cream 
carefully  soured  to  obtain  a  flavor  produced  by  certain 
bacteria.  Renovated  butter  is  made  from  rancid  butter 
by  a  process  which  makes  it  wholesome.  (See  butterine, 
p.  215.) 


EGGS  AND  MILK  101 

Food  value  of  butter.  —  Butter  is  <)|i^''^;fHh^>mo&t; /whole- 
some as  well  as  most  delicious  forins  m  .wljieli^fut^  (na-y  ;be 
eaten.  Is  it  a  good  fuel  food?  Wliy  ?  -  (Chart  'i,  jp/2170 
Do  you  need  as  much  butter  on  your  bread  when  you  eat 
bacon  for  breakfast  as  when  you  eat  lean  meat  ?  For  more 
about  the  food  value  and  digestion  of  fat,  see  pp.  216,  218, 

and  370. 

Whipped  Cream 
Cream,  \  pt.  Powdered  sugar,  2  tb. 

Extract  of  vanilla,  |  to  ^  t. 

Whip  it  with  a  wire  whisk  or  a  Dover  beater  until  stiff 
enough  to  hold  its  shape,  beat  in  the  sugar  and  vanilla,  and 
keep  in  a  cool  place  till  served.  In  warm  weather,  set  the 
bowl  of  cream  in  a  pan  of  cracked  ice  while  whipping  it. 
Serve  on  hot  chocolate,  or  as  a  sauce  with  desserts. 

CHEESE 

Practically  all  cheese  is  now  factory-made.  A  few  kinds 
are  similar  to  cottage-cheese.  But  most  cheese  is  made  by 
adding  rennet  to  soured,  or  ^^  ripened  ''  milk.  The  firm 
curd  thus  formed  is  cut  up,  warmed,  drained,  salted,  and 
pressed  into  separate  cheeses ;  and  these  cheeses  are  then 
kept  several  weeks  or  months  to  dry  and  ripen  them,  and 
to  develop  their  flavor.  Different  conditions  during  cur- 
ing produce  different  flavors. 

Food  value  of  cheese.  —  Good  cheese  is  about  one-third 
fat  and  one-fourth  protein.  (Chart  2.)  It  is  partly  digested 
by  the  rennet  and  the  curing  process,  and  is  very  com- 
pletely digestible  in  the  body.     For  healthy,  especially  for 


102     THEORY  AND  PRACTICE  OF  COOKERY 

active  ^e"ople/it'isc  oiie'of  the  best  of  foods.     We  might  well 

use  it.  more  in  place  of  meat^  as  Europeans  do.     But  if  used 

in  addition  to  Meat  or  other  nitrogenous  food,  only  a  Httle 

should  be  taken,  as  a  relish.     Cheese  contains  a  very  little 

sugar,    and   mineral   matter.     What   foodstuff  is   lacking? 

What  may  we  eat  with  cheese  to  supply  this? 

Cheese  Fondue  is  hearty  enough  to  form  the  main  dish  of 

a  meal.     See  also  recipe  for  Baked  Macaroni  with  Cheese 

on  p.  122. 

Cheesed  Crackers 

Crackers  (zephyrettes),  6. 
Grated  cheese,  about  6  r.  t. 
Cayenne  pepper,  f .  g. 

Butter  zephyrettes  lightly,  spread  with  cheese  and  cay- 
enne well  mixed,  and  heat  on  a  pan  in  a  hot  oven  till  the 
cheese  melts. 

Cheese  Fondue 

Bread  crumbs,  1  c.  Eggs,  2. 

Milk,  i  c.  Butter,  i  c. 

Grated  cheese,  |  c.  Salt,  1 1. 
Pepper,  f.  g. 

Butter  a  baking-dish.  Cook  bread  crumbs  and  milk  to- 
gether, stirring  until  hot  and  smooth ;  add  butter,  cheese, 
salt,  and  pepper,  cook  one  minute  longer,  and  remove  from 
the  fire.  Beat  yolks  and  whites  separately,  the  whites  till 
stiff  and  dry.  Mix  the  yolks  thoroughly  into  the  cheese 
mixture,  and  fold  in  the  whites.  Bake  in  baking-dish  in 
hot  oven  fifteen  or  twenty  minutes  ;  when  firm  to  the  touch, 
the  fondue  is  done.     Serve  at  once  in  the  same  dish. 


EGGS  AND  MILK  103 

Baked    in   ramekin   dishes,   this   mixture   forms    Cheese 
Ramekins. 

Brief  Reference  List 

For  further  development  of  topics  treated  in  this  section 
see :  — 

Sherman  :  Food  products.    Ch.  3  and  4. 

Olsen  :  Pure  foods.     Ch.  4,  5,  and  7. 

RosENAu:  The  milk  question. 

Rosenau  :  Pasteurization.  (In  U.  S.  public  health  and  marine  hospital 
service  —  Hygiene  laboratory  bulletin  56.) 

Wing:  Milk  and  its  ^products. 

Elliott  :  Household  bacteriology.    Pp.  55-60. 

Buchanan  :  Household  bacteriology.  Ch.  26  and  30,  Lactic  acid  fermen- 
tation ;  p.  297,  Ripening  of  cheese ;  ch.  40,  Milk  and  its  contamina- 
tion. 

Ward  :  Grocer's  encyclopedia.  (Articles  on  milk,  condensed  milk,  cheese, 
butter.) 

Health  Education  League  :  Booklet  2.     Milk. 

U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agriculture  :  Farmers'  Bulletins :  413.  Care  of  milk 
and  its  use  in  the  home ;  363.  Use  of  milk  as  food ;  490.  Bacteria  in 
milk;  487.  Cheese  and  its  economical  uses  in  the  diet.  Bureau  of 
Animal  Industry.  Circulars :  166.  Digestibility  of  cheese ;  126,  161, 
184  (on  pasteurization) ;  197.  Directions  for  home  pasteurization ;  171. 
Fermented  milks. 


CHAPTER  IV 
BREAD 

Section  1.    Quick  Breads;   Baking-powders 

Heretofore  the  dishes  that  you  have  cooked  have  con- 
sisted of  one  principal  ingredient,  with  small  quantities 
of  others  added  to  make  this  more  palatable.  In  cooking 
you  have  had  to  consider  the  nature  of  but  one,  or  at  the 
most  twO;  of  the  foodstuffs  of  which  the  principal  ingredient 
was  composed.  What  foodstuff  did  you  consider  in  cooking 
eggs?     in  cooking  cereals? 

In  this  chapter  you  are  to  deal  with  mixtures  of  several 
kinds  of  food-material,  and  success  will  depend  upon  your 
understanding  of  the  properties  of  each  of  the  materials  you 
use,  and  upon  your  care  in  measuring,  mixing,  and  baking 
them. 

Quick  breads  include  biscuits,  muffins,  griddle  cakes,  and 
the  like.  They  are  so  called  to  distinguish  them  from 
yeast-breads  J  which  require  a  longer  time  for  preparation. 

POPOVERS 

Flour,  1  c.  Salt,  1 1. 

Milk,  1  c.  Eggs,  2. 

Put  the  flour  in  a  bowl ;  make  a  well  in  the  centre  of  it ; 
drop  in  the  salt,  then  the  unbeaten  eggs.  Add  the  milk 
gradually,    stirring   in   widening   circles   from   the    centre. 

104 


PLATE  VII. 


Egg  in  a  Nest,  and  Dropped  Egg  on  Toast  garnished  with  Parsley. 


Popover 


Muffin 
Quick  Breads. 


Biscuit 


French  Loaves,  Finger  Rolls,  and  French  Rolls  with  Baking  Pans  for 

Each. 


BREAD  105 

Bake  in  iron  muffin-pans,  or  in  earthen  cups,  in  a  hot  oven 
for  forty-five  minutes.  Reduce  heat  at  the  end  of  fifteen 
minutes. 

To  grease  baking-pans.  —  Melt  the  butter  or  other 
fat,  and  with  a  bit  of  soft  paper,  or  a  brush  kept  for  this 
purpose,  apply  it  evenly  to  the  pan,  being  careful  to  grease 
the  corners  carefully. 

The  uncooked  popover  mixture  is  called  batter. 

Popovers  are  made  light  by  the  expansion  of  the  water 
in  them  as  it  is  changed  to  steam  by  the  heat  of  the  oven, 
the  heat  at  the  same  time  forming  a  crust,  which  keeps  the 
steam  from  escaping.  When  done  the  popovers  should  be 
crisp,  hollow  shells,  several  times  the  height  of  the  batter, 
and  well  "  popped-over." 

Bakinq-powdeb  Biscuit 
Flour,  2  c.  Salt,  1 1. 

Baking-powder,  4  t.  Butter,  2  tb. 

Milk  (or  milk  and  water),  about  f  c. 

Sift  the  flour,  baking-powder,  and  salt  together.  Rub  in 
the  butter  (which  should  be  cold  and  firm)  with  the  tips  of 
the  fingers  or  cut  it  in  with  a  fork  until  the  mixture  looks 
like  meal.  Push  the  flour  to  one  side  of  the  bowl,  and  add 
the  milk,  a  little  at  a  time,  tossing,  not  stirring,  the  flour 
into  the  milk  with  a  broad  knife  or  spatula,  until  a  soft 
dough  is  formed.  When  all  the  flour  is  moistened  turn  it 
on  to  a  floured  board.  Knead  it  for  a  minute  with  the 
hands.  Pat  and  roll  it  lightly  with  a  rolling-pin  to  a  thick- 
ness of  three-fourths  of  an  inch.  Cut  into  biscuit  with  a 
small  biscuit-cutter  dipped  in  flour.     Bake  on  a  pan  from 


106     THEORY  AND  PRACTICE  OF  COOKERY 

twelve  to  fifteen  minutes  in  a  hot  oven.  For  richer  bis- 
cuits use  from  three  tablespoonfuls  to  one-fourth  cupful  of 
butter. 

Griddle  Cakes 
Flour,  2  c.  Salt,  ^  t. 

Baking-soda,  1 1.  Sour  milk,  2  c. 

Eggs,  1. 

Note.  —  This  recipe  makes  thin,  delicate  cakes.  For  thicker  ones 
use  two  and  a  half  to  three  cups  of  flour. 

Put  the  griddle  where  it  will  be  hot  by  the  time  the 
cakes  are  mixed. 

Sift  the  flour,  salt,  and  baking-soda  together.  Beat  the 
eggs  well.  Stir  the  milk  into  the  flour.  Add  the  beaten 
egg,  and  beat  all  together  until  well  mixed.  Bake  by 
spoonfuls  on  a  hot  greased  griddle.-^  When  the  cakes  are 
full  of  bubbles  on  top,  and  brown  on  one  side,  turn  them 
over  with  a  broad  knife  or  a  cake-turner,  and  brown  them 
on  the  other  side.  If  large  bubbles  rise  at  once  to  the  top 
of  the  cakes,  the  griddle  is  too  hot.  If  the  top  of  the  cake 
stiffens  before  the  under  side  is  brown,  the  griddle  is  not  hot 
enough.  Never  turn  a  cake  twice ;  a  twice  turned  cake 
will  be  heavy. 

Serve  the  cakes  as  soon  as  they  are  baked,  piled  (not  more 
than  three  or  four  together)  on  a  hot  plate.  Eat  them  with 
butter,  butter  and  syrup,  or  butter  and  sugar. 

In  making  griddle  cakes  with  sweet  milk,  omit  soda,  and 
add  two  teaspoonfuls  of  baking-powder  and  one  table- 
spoonful  of  melted  butter. 

^  Beat  the  batter  well  before  pouring  a  fresh  batch  of  cakes  upon  the 
griddle. 


BREAD 


107 


The  griddle.  —  A  soapstone  griddle  is  best.  Never  grease 
it.  Grease  an  iron  griddle  with  a  piece  of  beef  suet  on  a 
fork,  or  drippings  applied  with  a  swab  made  by  tying  a 
strip  of  clean  cloth  around  the  end  of  a  fork  or  skewer. 
Leave  no  spot  ungreased,  but  do  not  have  more  than  just 
enough  to  keep  the  cakes  from  sticking.  If  they  should 
stick,  scrape  the  griddle  clean  before  greasing  it  again. 

What  is  put  into  griddle  cakes  that  is  not  put  into  pop- 
overs?  And  what  is  put  into  biscuit  (besides  shortening) 
that  is  not  put  into  either  popovers  or  griddle  cakes  ? 

We  do  not  depend  upon  steam  bubbles  to  make  biscuit 
and  griddle  cakes  light.  In  the  one  case  soda  is  used,  in 
the  other  case,  baking-powder,  to  lighten  the  mixture. 

A  STUDY  OF  BAKING-SODA  AND   BAKING-POWDER 

Experiments.  —  A.  Dissolve  half  a  teaspoonful  of  baking-powder  in 
about  two  tablespoonfuls  of  water.  What  happens?  B.  When  the 
solution  stops  bubbling  (effervescing)  heat  it 
(in.  a  saucepan  on  the  stove  or  in  test-tube  over 
a  bunsen  burner  or  a  gas-stove  burner).  What 
effect  has  heat  on  the  bubbling?  C.  While  it 
is  bubbling  fast,  hold  a  lighted  match  over  the 
mouth  of  the  test-tube.  What  gas  is  being 
formed?  This  gas  may  also  be  tested  for  by 
the  apparatus  shown  in  Fig.  7.  What  effect 
will  the  gas  have  on  the  lime-water  (p.  6)  ? 

How  baking-powder  makes  biscuit  fig.  7.  — Apparatus  for 
light.— When  baking-powder  is  dis-  ^^^^^^  ^^^  ^^^^^^  ^^- 
solved,  carbon  dioxide  is  formed  and  Test-tube  w  containing  baking- 

1       111  TT       i    •  ii  1  •  powder  solution.    Glass  tube 

bubbles  up.    Meat  mcreases  the  action.      connected  with  t  dips  into 

wry  xi  J  •  I     ^  1  •  •  lime-water  contained  in  glass 

When  the  action  takes  place  m  a  mix-      {„). 


108     THEORY  AND  PRACTICE  OF  COOKERY 

ture  during  cooking,  the  thousands  of  bubbles  of  gas  formed 
are  caught  in  the  mixture  and  baked  in.  This  makes  the 
biscuit,  muffins,  or  cakes  porous  and  Hght. 

Experiments.  —  D.  Dissolve  a  teaspoonful  of  soda  in  a  fourth  of  a  cup 
of  water  in  one  glass,  and  two  teaspoonfuls  of  cream  of  tartar^  in  the 
same  quantity  of  water  in  another  glass.  (Cream  of  tartar  dissolves  more 
readily  in  hot  water  than  in  cold.)  E.  Pour  the  two  solutions  together. 
Observe  the  effect  and  tell  what  you  think  causes  it.  F.  If  a  further 
demonstration  is  desired,  a  little  soda  with  about  twice  as  much  cream  of 
tartar  may  be  dissolved,  heated  in  a  test-tube,  and  the  gas  tested  as  in 
Exp.  B.  G.  Add  a  pinch  of  soda  or  a  Httle  soda  solution  to  sour  milk; 
to  vinegar.     H.  Taste  cream  of  tartar.     How  does  it  taste? 

How  soda  makes  griddle  cakes  light.  —  Soda  is  a  car- 
bonate. When  such  a  carbonate  as  soda  and  an  acid  meet 
in  solution,  they  unite,  and  carbon  dioxide  is  formed.  In 
sour-milk  griddle  cakes  the  sour  milk  supplies  lactic  acid. 

Baking-powder  contains  both  soda  and  cream  of  tartar 
or  some  other  acid. 

Experiments.  —  I.  Dip  a  strip  of  red  litmus  ^  paper  into  a  soda  solution. 
Dip  a  strip  of  blue  litmus  into  a  cream  of  tartar  solution.  Test  with 
litmus  paper  sour  milk,  vinegar,  washing-soda,  soapy  water,  ammonia, 
a  salt-solution,  and  a  solution  of  baking-powder.  Which  of  these  sub- 
stances turn  red  litmus  blue?  Which  turn  blue  htmus  red?  Which  do 
not  alter  the  color?     J.  Taste  griddle-cake  batter.     Test  it  with  htmus. 

Acids,  alkalies,  salts.  —  Any  substance  that  turns  blue 
litmus  red  is  an  acid.     Any  substance  that  turns  red  litmus 

1  Cream  of  tartar  is  a  product  of  grapes.  It  is  made  by  purifying  the 
crystals,  called  "argols,"  which  form  in  wine- vats. 

2  Litmus  is  a  coloring  matter  made  from  lichens  which  grow  on  the 
coasts  of  Europe. 


BREAD  109 

blue  is  an  alkali.^  A  substance  that  does  not  affect  the 
color  of  litmus  is  said  to  be  neutral.^  The  union  of  any- 
acid  and  any  alkali  used  in  cooking  produces  not  only- 
carbon  dioxide,  but  a  neutral  salt.     (See  p.  57.) 

Why  soxir-milk  griddle  cakes  are  not  sour. — This  explains 
why  griddle  cakes,  although  made  from  sour  milk,  do  not 
taste  sour.  If  just  enough  soda  is  used  to  neutralize  the 
lactic  acid,  the  batter  will  not  change  the  color  of  litmus. 
Usually,  however,  more  than  enough  soda  is  used,  and  the 
batter  turns  red  litmus  blue.  The  salt  formed  by  the 
action  of  lactic  acid  on  soda  is  harmless.  One  teaspoonful  of 
soda  is  usually  allowed  to  one  pint  of  sour  milk. 

Different  kinds  of  baking-powder.  —  A  baking-powder 
which  contains  just  the  right  proportions  of  soda  and  acid 
makes  a  neutral  solution.  It  is  important  that  the  salt 
formed  should  be  harmless.  Cream  of  tartar  forms  with 
soda  Rochelle  salts.  These  are  soluble.  They  have  a 
slight  medicinal  effect,  but  in  eating  food  raised  with  baking- 
powder,  a  person  gets  a  very  small  quantity  of  the  salt. 
Cream  of  tartar  baking-powders,  also  called  tartrate  powders, 
are  among  the  best  on  the  market.  Two  other  classes  of 
baking-powders  are  made.  In  one  of  these  the  acid  used  is 
acid  phosphate.  In  the  other  it  is  alum.  The  salt  left  in 
food  raised  with  phosphate  powders  is  insoluble,  but  not 

^  Note  that  alkaline  solutions  feel  slippery.  Washing-soda  and  baking- 
soda  are  both  alkaline  carbonates.  Washing-soda  is  sodium  carbonate, 
baking-soda  is  sodium  bi-carbonate. 

2  Water  in  which  red  cabbage-water  has  been  boiled  may  be  used  in- 
stead of  litmus  paper  as  a  test  for  acids  and  alkalies.  Acids  turn  cabbage- 
water  violet.     Alkalies  turn  it  green. 


110     THEORY  AND  PRACTICE  OF  COOKERY 

injurious.  Alum  powders  leave  an  objectionable  residue. 
Alum  powders  are  cheap,  but  as  they  lose  their  strength 
sooner  than  tartrate  powders  do,  and  as  they  often  contain 
considerable  starch,  an  alum  powder  may  not  be  as  cheap 
as  it  seems. 

Starch  in  baking-powder.  —  All  baking-powders  contain 
some  starch,  put  in  to  absorb  moisture.  If  the  acid  and  soda 
are  not  kept  dry,  they  begin  to  act,  and  some  of  the  carbon 
dioxide  is  lost.  If  more  starch  than  is  necessary  for  this 
purpose  is  used,  it  is  an  adulteration.  (See  p.  53.)  Bak- 
ing-powder may  be  tested  for  starch  (a)  by  boiling  and 
(6)  with  iodine  (p.  61). 

To  keep  baking-powder  dry,  always  cover  the  box  as 
soon  as  you  have  taken  out  what  you  need. 

Proportion  of  baking-powder  to  flour.  —  Use  one  to  one 
and  one-half  teaspoonfuls  of  baking-powder  to  one  cupful 
of  flour.  If  more  than  this  is  required,  the  baking-powder 
is  of  poor  quality.  Bread  or  cake  made  with  "  generous  ^' 
measures  of  baking-powder  is  dry,  and  contains  an  excess 
of  Rochelle  salts.  One  scant  teaspoonful  of  soda  and  two 
level  teaspoonfuls  of  cream  of  tartar  are  equal  to  three 
teaspoonfuls  of  good  baking-powder.  It  is  better  to  use 
a  good  baking-powder  than  to  use  soda  and  cream  of  tartar, 
because  the  housekeeper  cannot  proportion  the  two  as 
accurately  as  the  manufacturing  chemist.  Any  excess  of 
either  is  wasted,  and  may  be  injurious  to  health. 

How  the  carbon  dioxide  raises  the  batter  or  dough.  — 
As  cream  of  tartar  is  only  partly  soluble  without  heat,  little 
of  the  gas  is  set  free  until  the  mixture  is  put  into  the  oven. 


BREAD  111 

It  then  comes  off  rapidly,  filling  the  batter  or  dough  with 
bubbles,  and  making  it  rise  higher  and  higher.  As  the  gas 
expands,  the  walls  of  the  bubbles  stretch  and  become  thin. 
Just  at  this  stage,  if  the  oven  is  right,  the  heat  sets  the 
mixture  and  imprisons  the  gas.  In  too  hot  an  oven  a  crust 
forms  before  all  the  gas  is  set  free ;  in  too  cool  an  oven  the 
bubbles  break  and  the  gas  escapes.  In  either  case  the  result 
is  heavy  bread. 

BATTERS  AND   DOUGHS 

Dough  means  ^^  that  which  is  moistened " ;  batter 
means  ^^  that  which  is  beaten. '' 

One  measure  of  liquid  with  one  to  one  and  a  half  measures 
of  flour  makes  a  thin  or  pour-hatter. 

One  measure  of  liquid  to  two  measures  or  a  little  more 
of  flour  makes  a  thick  or  drop-batter. 

A  mixture  stiff  enough  to  be  handled  on  a  board  is  a 
dough. 

One  measure  of  liquid  to  two  and  two-thirds  measures  of 
flour  makes  a  soft  dough. 

One  measure  of  liquid  to  three  or  more  measures  of  flour 
makes  a  stiff  dough. 

What  kind  of  batter  is  the  popover  mixture?  What 
kind  of  mixture  will  the  recipe  for  biscuit  make? 

Ingredients ;  means  of  lightening ;  shortening.  —  A 
mixture  of  flour  and  water  or  flour  and  milk  alone  would 
be,  when  cooked,  hard  and  unpalatable.  We  have  found 
that  the  introduction  of  carbon  dioxide  makes  it  light  and 
porous,  and  that,  in  a  watery  batter  cooked  by  intense  heat, 


112     THEORY  AND  PRACTICE  OF  COOKERY 

the  steam  produced  puffs  the  batter  up.  Eggs  stiffen  bat- 
ters. (See  Muffin  Recipes.)  With  very  glutinous  flour 
(pp.  116  and  120)  eggs  are  unnecessary  except  to  make  the 
bread  richer.  Fat  shortens  bread ;  i.e.,  makes  it  more  ten- 
der by  separating  the  starch-grains  of  the  flour.  Butter 
gives  a  fine  flavor ;  but  less  expensive  kinds  of  shortening 
may  often  be  used.   (See  p.  225.) 


HELPFUL  HINTS  ABOUT  MIXING  AND  BAKING  QUICK  BKEADS 

1.  There  are  several  good  methods  of  mixing  batters.  As 
a  rule,  sift  salt,  flour,  and  baking-powder  together.  Butter 
may  be  cut  into  the  flour,  or  melted  and  added  after  the 
other  liquid. 

2.  Mix  quickly  and  bake  at  once  thin  batters,  those  raised 
wholly  with  air  and  those  raised  by  using  soda  and  sour 
milk,  or  any  other  liquid  acid  which  sets  free  at  once  almost 
all  the  available  gas. 

3.  The  proper  degree  of  heat  for  baking  must  be  learned 
by  experience.  In  general,  doughs  require  a  hotter  oven 
than  batters  do.  Too  great  heat  causes  bubbles  of  air  or 
gas  to  burst  and  run  together,  a  condition  which  is  to  be 
avoided  when  a  fine-grained  bread  is  desired.  Popovers, 
when  baked,  should  be  hollow  shells,  and  so  require  a  very 
hot  oven  at  first. 

4.  Set  the  pan  at  first  on  the  bottom  of  the  oven ;  after 
the  bread  has  risen  it  may  be  placed  on  the  rack  to  brown 
the  top. 

5.  Open  and  close  the  oven  door  gently  —  "as  if  there 


BREAD  113 

were  a  baby  inside  "  —  and  if  it  is  necessary  to  move  the 
pan  while  the  bread  is  rising,  do  it  carefully.  A  draft  of 
cold  air  will  cause  the  bubbles  to  collapse;  a  sudden  jar 
will  break  them.     In  either  case  the  bread  will  fall. 

RECIPES 

Plain  Muffins 

Flour,  2  c.  Salt,  1 1. 

Baking-powder,  4  t.  Butter,  1  tb. 

Milk,  1  c.  sc. 

Mix  and  sift  the  flour,  baking-powder,  and  salt.  Stir 
in  enough  milk  to  make  a  drop-batter,  add  the  butter 
melted,  and  beat  well.     Bake  about  twenty  minutes. 

Egg  Muffins 

Flour,  li  c.  Milk,  f  c. 

Baking-powder,  3  t.  Eggs,  1. 

Salt,  f  t.  Butter,  1  tb. 

Mix  and  sift  the  dry  ingredients.  Cut  in  the  butter 
with  the  back  of  the  fork.  Beat  the  egg  well,  stir  the 
milk  into  it.  Make  a  well  in  the  flour  mixture,  and  pour 
in  the  milk  and  egg  all  at  once.  Stir  in  widening  circles 
until  well  mixed. 

Another  way  to  add  the  butter  is  to  melt  it  and  add  it 
last. 

Whole-wheat  Muffins 

Flour,  1|  c.  Salt,  ^  t. 

Baking-powder,  3  t.  Butter,  1  tb. 

Sugar,  1  tb.  Milk,  f  c. 


114     THEORY  AND  PRACTICE  OF  COOKERY 

Mix  and  sift  the  dry  ingredients.  Stir  in  the  melted  butter 
and  milk,  and  beat  well.  Bake  in  greased  muffin-pans  about 
twenty-five  minutes. 

Quick  Nut  Bread 


>  to  be  mixed  together  thoroughly. 


Graham  flour  (unsifted),  2  c. 
White  flour,  1  c. 
Light  brown  sugar,  f  c. 
Baking-powder,  1  t. 
Baking-soda,  1|  t. 
Salt,  1  t. 
Buttermilk  or  sour  milk,  2  c. 
Nut  meats,  cut  fine,  1  c. 

Stir  the  buttermilk  into  the  flour  mixture.  When  the 
batter  is  smooth,  stir  in  the  nut  meats.  Turn  into  a  buttered 
bread  pan,  and  bake  one  hour  and  a  half  in  a  moderate  oven. 

Boston  Brown  Bread 

Rye  meal,  1  c.  Milk,  2  c. 

Corn  meal,  1  c.  Molasses,  f  c. 

Graham  flour,  1  c.  Salt,  1|  t. 

Baking-powder,  4  t. 

Mix  the  dry  materials.  Mix  the  milk  and  molasses,  and 
stir  them  into  the  dry  materials.  Steam  in  a  greased  round 
brown-bread  tin  for  about  three  hours,  or  divide  into  three 
greased  ^-pound  baking-powder  tins,  and  steam  for  1  hour. 
The  tins  should  not  be  more  than  three-fourths  full.  They 
may  be  placed  on  the  rack  of  a  steamer  or  set  into  a  covered 
vessel  of  hot  water,  with  a  rack  or  support  of  some  sort  in 
the  bottom  to  keep  them  from  bumping.     If  set  into  hot 


BREAD  115 

water,  grease  the  covers  and  put  them  on.     If  a  single  large 
tin  is  used,  it  may  have  a  greased  cloth  tied  over  the  top. 

Soft  Corn  Bread 

Dry  hominy,  1  c.  Boiling  water,  3  c. 

Yellow  corn  meal,  1  c.  Milk,  about  1  qt. 

Lard,  1  tb.  Eggs,  3. 

Baking-powder,  1  tb. 

Stir  the  hominy  into  the  boiling  water,  and  cook  till  soft. 
While  hot,  mix  in  the  meal,  lard,  and  milk.  Beat  the  whites 
and  yolks  of  the  eggs  separately.  Add  the  yolks,  then  the 
whites.  Sprinkle  in  the  baking-powder  last,  and  beat  the 
mixture.  Bake  in  a  buttered  dish  45  minutes.  It  should 
brown  on  top.     Serve  with  a  spoon  with  the  meat  course. 

Corn-meal  Muffins 

Com  meal,  |  c.  'Salt,  1 1. 

Flour,  1  c.  Sugar,  If  tb. 

Baking-powder,  3  t.  Milk,  1  c. 

Eggs,  1.  Butter,  1  tb. 

Scald  half  of  the  milk.  Put  the  corn  meal  in  a  bowl, 
make  a  well  in  the  centre,  into  the  well  put  the  salt  and 
butter.  Stir  in  the  scalded  milk.^  Add  the  egg  well 
beaten,  the  cold  milk,  and  the  flour  and  baking-powder 
sifted  together.  Beat  well,  and  fold  in  the  beaten  whites. 
Bake  in  a  hot  oven  thirty  minutes. 

Digestion   of   quick   breads.  —  Quick   breads   are   most 

delicious  when  fresh.     No  bread,  however,  should  be  eaten 

steaming  hot,  because  in  this  state  the  inside  part,  or  crumb, 

^  To  soften  and  swell  the  grains.  These  are  too  coarse  to  be  thoroughly 
cooked  by  baking. 


116     THEORY  AND  PRACTICE  OF  COOKERY 

forms  in  the  mouth  a  pasty  mass  not  easily  digestible. 
The  crust  contains  dextrin  and  caramel,  and  is  therefore 
more  wholesome  than  the  crumb.  Little  children  and  all 
persons  with  weak  digestive  powers  should  never  eat  the 
crumb  of  warm  bread ;  those  who  do  eat  it  should  chew  it 
slowly  and  thoroughly. 

Brief  Reference  List 

For  further  development  of  topics  treated  in  this  section 
see:  — 

Snyder  :  Human  foods,    Ch.  12. 

Olsen  :  Pure  foods.     Ch.  16  and  ch.  13,  p.  143. 

Ward  :  Grocer's  encyclopedia.     (Articles  on  baking  powder  and  cream  of 

tartar.) 
KiNNE  AND  CooLEY :  Foods  and  household  management.    Ch.  11. 
Lynde  :  Physics  of  the  household.     Ch.  12. 

Section  2.    Flour 

A   STUDY   OF   WHEAT.  —  PART   II.       (See  p.  80.) 

Analysis  of  wheat-flour.  —  A.  Make  half  a  cup  of  flour  into  a  very- 
stiff  dough  with  a  httle  water.  Knead  this  several  minutes  on  a  very 
fine  strainer  set  in  a  bowl  of  water.  Examine  what  is  left  in  the  strainer. 
How  does  it  look?  feel?  Spread  some  of  it  on  a  saucer  to  dry  and  ex- 
amine it  again.     Heat  some  in  the  oven,  notice  how  it  swells.     (See  Plate 

vm.) 

B.  Test  the  sediment  in  the  water  for  starch  in  two  ways. 

Gluten.  —  Wheat-flour,  when  kneaded  with  water,  yields 
a  yellowish  gray  substance  that  when  moist  is  elastic  and 
sticky  like  glue,  and  for  this  reason  is  called  gluten.  When 
dry  it  is  horny  and  translucent.  If  moistened  and  heated, 
it  expands  to  many  times  its  original  bulk. 


BREAD 


117 


—-d 


Strictly  speaking,  gluten  does  not  exist  in  wheat  or  in  dry 
wheat-flour.  What  we  do  find  is  a  mixture  of  gliadin  and 
glutenin,  which,  when  kneaded  with  water,  unite  chemically 
to  form  gluten.  There  is  usually  about  twice  as  much 
gliadin  as  glutenin  in  good  bread  flour. 

C.  Test  gluten  for  protein  in  two  ways.     (Pp.  86  and  151.) 

Structure  and  composition  of  a  wheat-grain.  —  The  body 
of  a  wheat  grain  is  largely  starch  and  protein.  The  pro- 
tein is  mostly  gluten. 
This  central  mass  is 
called  the  endosperm. 
At  one  end  of  the 
grain  is  the  germ. 
This  is  rich  in  fat 
and  in  tissue-building 
material  both  nitrog- 
enous and  mineral. 

Around  the  outside 
of  the  grain  is  a 
layer,  in  some  places 
a  double  layer,  of 
large,  square  cells. 
These  contain  nitrogenous  material  (aleurone).  This  layer 
is  generally  removed  in  milling.  Outside  of  it  are  five  coats 
of  bran  which  contain  mineral  matter,  including  phosphates. 
All  these  food  stuffs  are  stored  in  cells  with  walls  of  cellu- 
lose, but  there  is  more  cellulose  in  the  bran  than  anywhere 
else. 


Fig.  8.  —  Cross-section  of  a  wheat-grain, 
enlarged. 

a  and  c  =  bran-coats ;  d  =  layer  of  aleurone  cells ;  e  =  cells 
containing  starch  and  gluten. 


118     THEORY  AND  PRACTICE  OF  COOKERY 
THE  MANUFACTURE  OF  FLOUR 

Cleaning.  —  If  you  ever  visit  a  flour-mill  you  will  be  shown 
the  wheat  as  it  is  shovelled  from  cars  into  bins,  mixed  with 
other  seeds,  and  with  dirt,  sticks,  and  nails.  It  is  freed  from 
these  by  being  run  through  sieves.  Next  it  is  either  washed 
or  scoured  between  brushes.  Then  it  is  heated,  and  if  dry, 
moistened  to  toughen  it.     It  is  now  ready  to  be  rolled. 

Rolling.  —  Each  pair  of  rollers  turns  in  the  same  direction, 
but  one  moves  two  or  three  times  as  fast  as  the  other ;  both 
are  grooved,  so  that  they  cut  or  break  rather  than  crush  the 
grain.  Each  passage  between  a  pair  of  rollers  is  accordingly 
called  a  break.  From  the  first  break  the  wheat  comes  out 
warm  from  the  friction  of  the  roller  and  looking  and  feeling 
something  like  coarse,  damp  sawdust.  Next  it  passes  to  a 
machine  called  a  scalper,  where  it  is  shaken  on  a  wire  tray 
to  separate  the  bran  as  far  as  possible  from  the  middlings, 
or  bits  of  the  white  middle  part  of  the  grain  —  the  part  to 
be  made  into  flour.  Then  back  go  the  branny  parts  to  be 
ground  over  by  a  second  set  of  grooved  rollers,  and  again 
"  scalped,"  while  the  middlings  are  crushed  between  smooth 
rollers,  sifted,  mixed  with  other  middlings  from  other 
breaks  of  the  wheat,  and  ground  over  and  sifted  till  com- 
pletely reduced  to  flour.  The  number  of  breaks  varies  from 
four  to  ten. 

Purifying.  —  Bran  and  other  impurities  are  removed  from 
both  middlings  and  flour  at  each  stage  of  the  milling  process 
by  means  of  sieves  to  remove  coarse  particles  and  air-blasts 
to  blow  away  worthless  flour-dust.     The  final  purification  of 


BREAD  119 

the  flour  after  the  last  grinding,  or  reduction,  is  by  air-blast 
and  by  sifting,  or  bolting,  through  silk  gauze  stretched  over 
cylindrical  frames  called  reels. 

Having  explained  the  milling  process,  the  miller  may 
show  you  a  quantity  of  yellow  disks  the  size  of  a  pinhead. 
These  are  germs  flattened  out  by  the  smooth  rollers,  and 
sifted  out.  If  this  were  not  done,  the  diastase  in  them 
(p.  81),  which  prepares  the  starch  for  digestion  by  the 
seedling,  would  spoil  the  flour  by  working  in  it  the  same 
change  that  it  does  in  the  seed. 

Packing.  —  Lastly,  you  may  see  the  finished  flour  packed 
by  machinery  into  barrels  and  sacks  to  be  sold,  some  of  it, 
perhaps,  to  the  farmers  who  raised  the  wheat  it  is  made  of, 
some  to  city  people  who  never  saw  a  wheat  field. 

Kinds  of  flour.  —  Flour  made  by  the  process  described 
above  contains  as  much  of  the  foodstuffs  of  the  wheat  as 
can  be  retained  while  excluding  the  germ  and  the  bran. 
Most  mills  make  several  grades  of  such  flour.  The  best 
quality,  known  as  '^  high-grade  patent,"  is  made  from 
middlings,  as  described  above.  Lower  grades  are  sifted 
out  after  each  break. 

True  graham  flour  is  unbolted  meal  made  from  whole 
wheat  including  the  bran.  Imitations  sold  as  graham  flour 
are  mixtures  of  low-grade  flour,  bran,  and  other  by-products 
of  milling.  So-called  "  entire  wheat  "  or  ''  wholewheat  " 
flour  has  not  always  been  what  its  name  indicated.  It 
contained  the  aleurone  but  lacked  part  of  the  bran  and 
much  valuable  mineral  matter.  It  has  been  proposed  to 
call  such  flour  bolted  wheat  meal,  and  graham  flour  whole  or 


120     THEORY  AND  PRACTICE  OF  COOKERY 

unbolted  wheat  meal,  so  that  the  housewife  may  know  what 

she  is  getting. 

Good  bread  flour,  and  how  to  tell  it.  —  Glutinous  flour, 

besides  being  more  nutritious  than  starchy  flour,  makes  the 

elastic  dough  necessary  for  producing  light  yeast  bread. 

Hard  spring  wheat,  being  rich  in  gluten,  yields  such  flour. 

You  may  know  it  (l)  by  its  creamy  white  color,  (2)  by  its 

gritty  feeling,  (3)  by  its  caking  but  slightly  when  squeezed 

in  the  hand,  and  (4)  by  its  capacity  for  absorbing  water. 

One  quart  of  good  flour  will  take  up  nearly  one  and  one-half 

cupfuls  of  water  in  making  dough  stiff  enough  for  yeast 

bread. 

Brief  Reference  List 

For  further  development  of  topics  treated  in  this  section 

see :  — 

Edgar  :  Story  of  a  grain  of  wheat. 

Grant  :  Chemistry  of  hreadmaking .     Ch.  VIII,  Milling. 

Sherman:  Food  products.    Pp.  268-279. 

DooLiTTLE :   Why  bleached  flour  should  not  be  used.      (In  Housewives ' 

League  Magazine,  June,  1914.) 
Snyder  :  Human  foods.     Ch.  10. 
U.   S.   Dept.   of  Agriculture  :    Bureau  of    Chemistry   Bulletin. 

164.    Graham  flour.    Bureau  of   Plant   Industry.    Bulletin  20. 

Manufacture  of  Semolina  and  Macaroni. 

Section  3.    Macaroni  and  Other  Flour  Pastes 

Macaroni,  spaghetti,  vermicelli,  and  other  pastes  are  to 
Italians  what  our  various  kinds  of  bread  are  to  us.  The  best 
macaroni  is  made  from  semolina,  the  purified  middlings  of 
durum  or  macaroni  wheat,  which  is  exceedingly  hard  and 
glutinous.     Bread   flour   also   may   be   made   from   durum 


BREAD  121 

wheat.  To  make  macaroni  and  similar  pastes,  a  stiff  mixture 
of  semolina  and  hot  water  is  placed  in  an  iron  cylinder,  the 
end  of  which  is  closed  by  a  disk  pierced  with  holes.  A 
piston  forces  the  paste  out  through  these  in  threads,  rods, 
or  tubes,  according  to  the  shapes  of  the  openings.  When 
dry,  the  threads  form  vermicelli  (Italian  for  little  worms), 
the  rods,  spaghetti  (Italian  for  cords),  and  the  tubes,  maca- 
roni (Italian  for  crushed).  Macaroni  is  dried  by  hanging 
over  wooden  rods  in  the  open  air  or  in  ovens. 

American  macaroni  was  formerly  made  from  the  flour  of 
ordinary  wheat  and  so  was  of  poor  quality.  More  and  more 
is  now  made  every  year  from  semolina. 

How  to  know  good  macaroni.  —  Good  macaroni  is 
yellowish  in  color  and  rough  in  texture.  It  breaks  cleanly 
without  splitting,  in  boiling  swells  to  at  least  double  its  bulk, 
and  neither  becomes  pasty  nor  loses  its  tubular  shape. 

Macaroni  contains  so  much  protein  that  it  is  almost 
equal  to  meat  as  a  food,  especially  if  cooked  with  cheese. 

Spaghetti  may  be  prepared  in  any  way  suitable  for 
macaroni,  but  is  usually  served  with  Tomato  Sauce. 

Vermicelli  is  used  only  in  soups.  Noodles,  to  serve  in 
soup,  are  made  in  various  shapes  from  a  paste  of  flour, 
water,  and  eggs. 

To  grate  cheese.  —  Use  Parmesan,  or  any  cheese  stale 
enough  to  be  dry.  Grate  on  a  coarse  grater,  and  do  not  pack 
the  grated  cheese  in  measuring  it. 

To  prepare  buttered  crumbs  for  scalloped  dishes.  — 
Mix  dried  crumbs  (p.  134)  with  melted  butter,  using  one- 
fourth  of  a  cupful  of  butter  to  one  cupful  of  crumbs. 


122  THEORY  AND  PRACTICE  OF  COOKERY 

Tomato  Sauce 

(for  Spaghetti,  Macaroni,  or  Boiled  Rice) 
Tomato  (canned  or  stewed),  1§  c.  Flour,  2  tb. 

Onion  (chopped),  1 1.  Salt,  ^  t. 

Butter,  2  tb.  Pepper,  1 1. 

Cook  the  onion  and  tomato  slowly  fifteen  minutes.  Mix 
butter  and  flour  together.  Strain  the  tomato  and  add  it 
to  the  butter  and  flour.  Cook  all  together,  stirring,  until 
it  boils ;  then  add  salt  and  pepper. 

Spaghetti  with  Tomato  Sauce 
Spaghetti,  |  of  a  box.  Salt,  1  tb. 

BoiUng  water,  2  qt.  Tomato  sauce. 

Hold  the  sticks  of  spaghetti  in  a  bunch,  and  dip  the  ends 
into  the  boiling  salted  water.  As  they  soften  and  bend, 
lower  them  into  the  water,  letting  them  coil  around  in  the 
saucepan.  The  spaghetti  may  thus  be  cooked  without 
breaking.  Boil  for  twenty  minutes,  or  until  soft,  drain, 
rinse  with  cold  water  (to  remove  starch  that  might  make  it 
sticky),  and  mix  with  the  tomato  sauce. 

Sprinkle  with  grated  cheese,  to  make  Spaghetti  Italian 

Style. 

Baked  Macaroni  with  Cheese 

Macaroni  broken  in  one-inch  Grated  cheese,  i  to  |  c. 

pieces,  f  c.  White  sauce  (made  from  2  tb.  of 

Boihng  water,  2  qt.  butter,  1^  tb.  of  flour,  1  c.  of  milk, 

Salt,  1  tb.  and  ^  t.  of  salt). 

Buttered  crumbs,  f  c. 

Boil  the  macaroni  in  the  salted  water  for  twenty  minutes, 
or  until  soft.    Drain  in  a  strainer,  and  rinse  with  cold  water. 


BREAD  123 

Put  a  layer  of  macaroni  in  a  buttered  baking-dish, 
sprinkle  with  cheese ;  repeat  until  all  the  cheese  and  maca- 
roni have  been  used ;  pour  the  white  sauce  over  the  top. 
Cover  with  buttered  crumbs,  and  bake  until  these  are  brown. 
Or  use  a  thick  layer  of  cheese  on  top,  and  no  crumbs. 

Section  4.    Yeast  Bkead;   Yeast 

The  perfect  loaf  of  bread  is  regular  in  shape,  has  a  crisp 
crust,  evenly  browned,  and  a  tender,  but  rather  firm  crumb 
of  even  grain.  It  tastes  sweet  and  nutty,  smells  fresh,  and 
keeps  good  for  several  days.  How  may  we  make  such  a 
loaf  ?  The  ingredients  are  few ;  the  process  is  simple ;  and, 
with  care,  skill  is  not  hard  to  acquire. 

White  Bread 

Flour,  from  3  to  3|  c.         Lukewarm  ^  water,  2  tb. 
Cold  water,  ^  c.  Compressed  yeast,  |  cake. 

Milk,  ^  c.  Salt,  f  t. 

Mixing.  —  Scald  the  milk^;  sift  and  measure  the  flour 
(three  and  one-half  cupfuls) ;  put  the  salt  in  a  bowl  and  pour 
the  milk  upon  it.  Add  the  cold  water,  then  the  yeast 
mixed  smoothly  with  the  lukewarm  water.  Having  stirred 
all  together,  stir  in  enough  flour  (about  two  and  three-fourths 
cupfuls)  to  make  a  drop-batter.  Beat  this  batter  until 
it  is  full  of  bubbles ;  then  beat  in  gradually  enough  more 
flour  to  make  a  rather  soft  dough.  When  too  stiff  to  beat, 
rub  a  little  flour  on  the  molding-board,  and  turn  the  dough 
out. 

1  Of  the  same  temperature  as  your  hand,  98°  F. 

2  To  kill  bacteria  in  it.     (P.  97.) 


124 


THEORY  AND  PRACTICE  OF  COOKERY 


U.S.  Department  of  Agriculture 

Office  of  Experiment  Stations 

A.  C.  True:  Director 


Prepared  by 
C.  F.  LAN6W0RTHY 
Expert  in  Charge  of  Nutrition  Investigations 


COMPOSITION  OF  FOOD  MATERIALS. 


Protein  Fat 

WHITE  BREAD 


Carbohydrates 


I      Fuel  Value 
KsSq. In. Equals 
1000  Calories 


Ash  Water 

WHOLE  WHEAT  BREAD 

W.ater:35.3    Wateri^.4 

Protein:  9.2     Protein l9.7 


Fuel 


Carbo-  Carboj;. 

h  yjixate  s :  53 . 1     h  y  d  rate  s :  49 . 7 

OAT 
BREAKFAST    FOOD 


Fuel  value: 


Water: 


1215  CALORIES 
PER  POUND 

Prote 


TOASTED  BREAD 

Ash:0.r 


1140  CALORIES 
PER  POUND 

Fat:0.5 

Ca.rbohydrates:  1 1.5 

CORN  BREAD 


VALUE:  I I        PER  POUND 


Fuel 


Water:  24.0 
Protein:  11.5 

Carbo- 
hydrates: 61 .2 


285  CALORIES 

UNOi 

Water^SsjSl 
Protein:  7.9 


Carb^ 
hydrates:46.3 


Fat; 
4.7 


MACARONI 

COOKED 

Fat:  1.5^    Protein: 3.0     ^Water:78.4 


Fuel  value: 


1420  CALORIES 
PER  POUND 

Ash:  1^ 
Carbo- 


1205  CALORIES 
PER  POUND 


hydrates:  15.8 


Fuel 

VALUE: 


415cL0RIES 
PER  POUND 


Chart  4. 


'••  »      •  J  J 


BREAD  125 

Kneading.  —  Dust  a  little  flour  on  the  dough  and  on  the 
palms  of  your  hands.  Fold  the  edge  of  the  dough  farthest 
from  you  toward  the  centre  of  the  mass,  immediately  pressing 
the  dough  down  and  away  from  you  with  a  gentle  rolling 
motion  of  the  palms  of  the  hands,  twice  repeated.  Turn 
the  dough  so  that  what  was  the  right-hand  part  of  it  shall 
be  farthest  away  from  you ;  fold  over  and  knead  as  before  ; 
continue  to  do  this,  turning  the  dough  and  flouring  your 
hands,  the  board,  and  the  dough,  to  keep  the  dough  from 
sticking.  Should  it  stick  to  the  board,  scrape  it  free  with  a 
dull  knife  and  flour  the  board  anew.  Knead  the  dough  until 
it  does  not  stick  to  your  hands  or  the  board,  is  smooth  on 
the  surface,  feels  spongy  and  elastic,  and  rises  quickly  after 
being  indented. 

The  use  of  a  bread-mixer  saves  labor  and  is  more  sanitary 
than  kneading  by  hand. 

First  rising.  —  Replace  the  dough-ball  in  a  wet  bowl, 
brush  the  top  with  water,  cover  the  bowl  with  several 
thicknesses  of  cloth,  and  set  it  near  the  stove  or  in  a  pan  of 
warm  water,  turning  another  pan  over  it. 

Second  rising.  —  When  the  dough  has  risen  to  twice  its 
original  bulk,  lift  it  on  to  the  board  and  shape  into  small 
loaves,  handling  lightly  and  using  no  additional  flour.  Put 
into  pans,  and  let  it  stand  in  a  warm  place  covered  with  a 
thick,  clean  cloth,  until  it  has  again  doubled  in  bulk. 

Baking.  —  When  the  dough  is  nearly  risen,  test  the  oven ; 
it  should  be  hot  enough  to  turn  a  piece  of  writing  paper  dark 
brown  in  six  minutes.  Bake  small  French  loaves  thirty- 
five    minutes;     brick   loaves,    four   inches   thick,    fifty   to 


126     THEORY  AND  PRACTICE  OF  COOKERY 

sixty  minutes.     Turn  the  pans  if  the  bread  does  not  bake 
evenly. 

Plain  Bread  Rolls,  Finger  Rolls,  and  Bread  Sticks 

Shape  these  from  white  bread-dough  after  its  first  rising. 
For  bread  rolls,  cut  or  pull  off  pieces  the  size  of  an  egg ;  draw 
up  and  pinch  the  edges  together,  forming  balls ;  then  with 
your  hand  roll  each  into  a  cylindrical  shape  on  the  board. 
Put  into  French  roll-pans,  let  rise  until  more  than  doubled 
in  bulk,  and  bake  from  twelve  to  fifteen  minutes.  Or,  put 
the  balls  on  a  flat  pan,  and  when  they  have  risen  cut  a  cleft 
nearly  an  inch  deep  across  the  top  of  each  one.  Bake  twelve 
to  fifteen  minutes.  For  finger  rolls,  roll  pieces  of  dough 
half  the  size  of  an  egg  into  cylinders  five  inches  long.  For 
bread  sticks,  roll  out  sticks  of  dough  about  half  an  inch 
thick  and  from  six  to  ten  inches  long.  Bake  these  and  finger 
rolls  ten  minutes.  The  oven  may  be  a  little  hotter  for  rolls 
than  for  loaves.     (Plate  VII,  facing  p.  104.) 

Sponging.  —  Bread  may  be  allowed  to  rise  once  when 
only  a  part  of  the  flour  has  been  added.  This  method  is 
called  sponging,  or  setting  a  sponge.  It  makes  the  bread 
finer-grained,  but  lengthens  the  process  for  white  bread 
which  requires  two  more  risings  after  the  rest  of  the  flour  is 
added.  Sponge  rises  faster  than  dough.  Why?  It  is 
desirable  to  set  a  sponge  (l)  if  you  have  to  make  bread 
with  a  scant  quantity  of  yeast ;  (2)  when  using  home- 
made or  dried  yeast ;  (3)  if  there  is  no  warm  place  for  the 
bread  to  rise  in ;  (4)  when  butter  and  eggs  are  to  be  added, 
as  these  can  be  mixed  more  easily  with  sponge  than  with 
dough.     It  is  a  good  method  to  use  with  whole-wheat  bread. 


BREAD  127 

Whole-wheat  Bread  (with  a  sponge) 
Whole-wheat  flour,  about  3  cupfuls.         Compressed  yeast,  i  cake. 
Lukewarm  water,  1|  c.  Salt,  f  t. 

Sugar,  2  tb. 

Mix  the  yeast  smoothly  with  one-fourth  of  a  cupful  of 
the  water ;  dissolve  the  salt  and  sugar  in  the  rest  of  the  water 
in  a  bowl ;  stir  the  yeast  into  this  ;  and  then  stir  in  enough 
flour  to  make  a  drop-batter.  Beat  until  the  batter  is  full  of 
bubbles  (not  less  than  five  minutes);  cover  the  bowl,  and  let 
the  batter,  or  sponge,  rise  until  doubled  in  bulk.  Stir 
in  the  rest  of  the  flour,  and  beat  thoroughly.  Turn  into 
pans,  and  let  rise  until  not  quite  doubled  in  bulk,  and  bake 
like  white  bread.  If  whole-wheat  dough  were  made  stiff 
enough  to  be  kneaded,  the  bread  would  be  tough  and  hard. 
If  the  sponging  method  is  not  used,  beat  in  all  the  flour 
at  once,  let  rise,  beat  again,  and  turn  into  pans. 

Variations  in  bread-making.  —  Either  white  or  whole- 
wheat bread  may  be  mixed  with  water,  milk,  or  half  milk 
and  half  water,  as  may  be  preferred.  Water  bread  is 
sweeter,  tougher,  and  keeps  longer  than  '^half-and-half 
or  all-milk  bread.  Bread  requires  neither  shortening  nor 
sweetening,  but  most  people  like  to  add  one  tablespoonful 
of  shortening  (butter,  lard,  or  other  fat)  for  each  cupful  of 
liquid.  Melt  shortening  in  hot  milk  or  water.  Wait  till 
it  is  lukewarm  before  adding  yeast. 

These  two  kinds  of  bread  contain  neither  soda  nor  baking- 
powder.  What  do  they  contain  that  is  not  used  in  quick 
breads?  Does  yeast  make  bread  light?  and  if  so,  how? 
The  first  thing  to  find  out  is  :  — 


128     THEORY  AND  PRACTICE  OF  COOKERY 

What  yeast  is.  —  Yeast  is  a  mass  of  tiny  plants,  each  a 
single,  rounded  cell  consisting  of  a  sac  filled  with  watery 
matter.  Under  a  microscope  new  cells  may  be  seen  budding 
out  of  old  ones,  forming  branching  chains.  Each  cell,  how- 
ever, lives  and  grows  independently.  Sometimes  bodies 
known  as  spores  form  inside  of  mother-cells  and  burst  out. 
Like  seeds,  spores  can  keep  alive  under  conditions  under 
which  the  plants  they  came  from  would  die.  Sometimes 
under  unfavorable  conditions  resting-cells  with  thick  walls 
are  formed.  These  live,  but  do  not  bud  till  conditions  are 
right  again.  The  home  of  yeast  is  on  the  skin  of  grapes 
and  on  parts  of  some  other  plants. 

A   STUDY  OF  YEAST 

The  growth  of  yeast ;  experiments.  —  A.  Mix  one  tablespoonful  of 
flour,  one  of  sugar,^  and  three-fourths  of  a  yeast-cake  to  a  smooth  paste 

with  four  or  five  tablespoonfuls  of  cold 

water.     Divide  the  mixture  between  three 

six-inch    test-tubes    (or    three    tumblers). 

Label  the  test-tubes  a,  b,  and  c  respectively. 

Fill  a  with  boiling  water ;   half  fill  b  with 

lukewarm  water,  and  stand  it  in  lukewarm 

water  or  in  a  warm  place ;  half  fill  c  with 

cold  water  and  keep  it  at  a  temperature  of 

32°  F.  or  below  (by  placing  it  in  a  bowl  of 

cracked  ice,  or  outside  the  window  on  a 

Fig.  9.-Yeast.cells.  freezing  day).      In  a  fourth  test-tube,  d, 

put  one-fourth  of  a  yeast-cake  mixed  with  water  only ;  treat  it  like  b} 

After  fifteen  minutes  examine  all  four  test-tubes.     What  do  you  see 

1  Adding  sugar  hastens  the  growth  of  the  yeast ;  for  bread-making  the 
sugar  in  the  flour  is  sufficient. 

2  A  mixture  of  molasses  and  water  may  be  used  instead  of  a  flour  mix- 
ture in  this  series  of  experiments. 


BREAD 


129 


on  the  top  of  the  liquid  in  6?  What  goes  on  in  the  Uquid?  Let  a  and  c 
stand  for  a  time  where  they  will  be  about  as  warm  as  h ;  what  change  do 
you  notice  in  either  of  them?  Is  there  any  foam  on  (i?  The  quantity 
of  foam  produced  is  a  measure  of  the  vigor  of  the  yeast.  At  what  tem- 
perature does  yeast  thrive  best?  Will  it  grow  at  all  at  32°?  after  being 
frozen  and  thawed?  after  being  heated  to  212°?  Will  it  grow  in  water 
alone  ? 

B.  (To  be  done  during  the  progress  of  Exp.  A.)  Prepare  in  a  generat- 
ing flask  a  mixture  hke  the  first  used  in  Exp.  A,  using  three  or  four  times 
the  quantity.  Arrange  an  apparatus  Hke  that  shown  in  Fig.  10.  Or 
use  test-tube  h  instead  of  a  flask,  standing  it  in  a  tumbler  of  warm  water. 
What  gas  comes  from  the  yeast  mixture  ?  In  what  other  ways  may  this 
gas  be  produced?  (pp.  107,  108.)  What  effect  has  it  when  introduced  into 
batter  or  dough?  As  it  is  heavier  than  air,  this  gas  may,  with  care,  be 
'poured  into  a  tumbler  from  the  bowl  in  which  bread  is  rising,  and  tested 
by  pouring  Ume-water  into  the  tumbler. 

Story  of  the  yeast  plant ;  what  it  needs  in  order  to  grow.  — 

Like  mushrooms  and  other  fungi  (singular  fungus)  which 
have  no  green  coloring-matter 
{chlorophyll),  yeast  needs  no 
light ;  and  like  these,  it  grows 
and  multiplies  fast.  It  is  like 
green  plants  in  that  it  grows 
only  when  kept  warm  and  moist. 
It  thrives  best  at  78°  F.  It  may 
be  forced  to  grow  and  bud  un- 
naturally fast  by  a  higher  tem- 
perature, just  as  hothouse  plants 


Fig.  10.  —  Apparatus  for  prov- 
ing that  growing  yeast  pro- 
duces carbon  dioxide. 


are ;  but  at  about  130°  F.  it 
loses  its  liveliness,  and  by  heat 
greater  than  this  it  is  killed. 
Cold  checks  its  growth,  but  even  after  being  frozen  it  will, 


y  =  flask  containing  yeast  mixture. 
w  =  vessel  of  warm  water. 
I  —  beaker  containing  lime-water. 
t  =  glass  tube. 


130     THEORY  AND  PRACTICE  OF  COOKERY 

if  thawed,  revive  and  grow.  It  needs  water,  and  either 
protein,  or  some  mineral  matter  containing  nitrogen,  to 
feed  upon.  Dried  yeast-cells  floating  in  the  air  revive  if 
they  fall  where  conditions  are  right  for  their  development, 
and  grow  much  as  seeds  do  that  fall  on  good  ground. 
Floating  spores  develop  into  cells  and  grow  and  bud. 

Recipe  fob  Home-made  Yeast 

Flour,  J  c.  Boiling  water,  1  to  2  qt. 

Sugar,  I  c.  Compressed  yeast,   1   cake,  dissolved 

Salt,  1  tb.  in  1  c.  of  water,  or 

Raw  potatoes,  3.  Liquid  yeast,  1  c. 

Pare  potatoes  and  keep  in  cold  water.  Mix  flour,  sugar, 
and  salt  in  a  large  bowl,  and  grate  the  potato  in  as  quickly  as 
possible.  Mix  at  once  with  a  wooden  spoon.  Pour  on 
boiling  water  directly  from  the  tea-kettle,  stirring  constantly, 
until  enough  water  has  been  added  to  make  the  mixture  the 
consistency  of  thin  starch.  (If  it  does  not  thicken,  heat  it 
to  the  boiling-point.)  Strain,  and  let  it  cool.  When  it  is 
lukewarm,  stir  in  the  yeast.  Beat  well  several  times  during 
the  day.  At  the  end  of  24  hours,  put  it  into  earthen  or 
glass  jars,  fasten  the  covers  down  tight,  and  put  in  a  cool 
place.  It  will  keep  two  weeks.  Save  the  last  cupful  to  start 
new  yeast. 

How  yeast  obtains  oxygen.  —  A  name  meaning  sugar- 
fungus  has  been  given  to  yeast,  because,  while  most  vigorous 
when  well  supplied  with  oxygen  from  the  air,  it  will,  when 
sugar  is  at  hand,  take  from  this  a  part  of  the  oxygen  it  needs. 
To  get  oxygen  out  of  sugar,  the  yeast-cell  digests  the  sugar 


BREAD  131 

by  means  of  a  juice  it  secretes,  which  spHts  sugar  into 
simpler  compounds.  The  most  important  of  these  com- 
pounds are  alcohol  and  carbon  dioxide.  This  juice  com- 
monly acts  inside  the  yeast-cell,  but  it  can  be  extracted 
from  yeast,  and  then  acts  on  sugar  as  living  yeast  does. 

Fermentation.  —  A  chemical  change  of  this  kind,  where 
one  organic  substance  is  decomposed  by  another,  is  called 
fermentation.  The  action  of  yeast  in  dough  is  an  alcoholic 
fermentation  of  sugar. 

Enzyms.  —  Fermentation  is  caused  by  substances  called 
enzyms. 

Other  examples  of  fermentation  of  enzym  action  are  the 
digestive  processes  in  animals  and  plants,  the  souring  of  milk, 
the  formation  of  vinegar.  Enzyms  come  from  living 
things,  animals,  plants,  or  minute  forms  of  life  such  as 
yeasts  and  bacteria.  Amylase,  diastase,  rennin,  pepsin, 
and  the  milk-souring  substance  produced  by  lactic  acid 
bacteria  are  all  enzyms.     (Pp.  70,  81,  86,  97,  99,  368.) 

Cultivated  yeasts.  —  Housewives  and  bakers  used  to 
grow  yeast  in  a  mixture  of  potatoes,  sugar,  water,  and  hops.^ 
Such  yeast  cannot  be  as  uniformly  good  as  the  pure  yeast 
cultivated  by  brewers  and  distillers.  Compressed  yeast- 
cakes  are  made  of  fresh  yeast  skimmed  from  fermented  dis- 
tillery rye.     It  spoils  quickly  if  not  kept  cold. 

Dried  yeast  is  made  of  fresh  yeast  mixed  with  starch  and 
dried.  It  is  used  where  fresh  yeast  cannot  be  obtained.  It 
keeps  for  weeks,  even  months,  but  is  best  when  fresh.  Dry- 
ing kills  some  of  the  yeast-plants ;  in  time,  all  of  them. 
1  Hops  are  used  to  check  the  growth  of  bacteria. 


132     THEORY  AND  PRACTICE  OF  COOKERY 

Dried  yeast  works  slowly.  Soak  it  in  warm  water  with  a 
little  sugar  and  always  set  a  sponge  when  using  it  for 
bread. 

The  yeast-garden.  —  Dough,  after  yeast  is  mixed  with 
it,  becomes  a  yeast-garden,  which  we  must  tend  carefully  in 
order  to  have  a  good  crop  of  yeast  and  a  plentiful  yield  of 
carbon  dioxide.  The  water  supplies  moisture ;  the  flour 
supplies  sugar,  which  the  yeast-plant,  in  its  greed  for  oxygen, 
turns  into  alcohol  and  carbon  dioxide.  More  oxygen  is 
supplied  by  beating  and  kneading  in  air.  The  right  tem- 
perature, 78°  to  90°  F.,  is  insured  by  using  lukewarm  liquid 
and  by  keeping  the  sponge  and  dough  warm  until  it  is  ready 
to  be  baked.  What  is  the  result?  a  dough  expanded  by 
bubbles  of  gas  given  off  by  the  lively  yeast-cells ;  a  dough 
that  has  lost  a  little  of  its  sweetness,  but  gained  other 
pleasant  flavors  through  various  fermentative  actions  of  the 
yeast  on  the  flour. 

After  alcoholic  fermentation  has  gone  on  for  some  time, 
another  enzym  begins  to  work  on  the  alcohol,  turning  it 
into  acetic  acid  (the  acid  found  in  vinegar).  This  is  why 
dough  sours  if  allowed  to  rise  too  long  or  at  too  high  a  tem- 
perature. 

When  the  dough  is  just  light  enough,^  it  is  put  into  an  oven 
so  hot  that  the  yeast  is  quickly  killed.  Nearly  all  the  alcohol 
is  driven  out  of  the  bread  as  vapor  during  baking. 

1  Do  not  try  to  neutralize  sour  dough  with  baldng-soda.  Soda  forms 
with  acetic  acid  an  unwholesome  compound,  and  besides,  since  there  is 
no  way  of  knowing  exactly  how  much  acid  has  been  formed,  you  are  likely 
to  use  too  much  soda.  Bread  "sweetened"  with  soda  is  more  unwhole- 
some than  bread  a  little  sour. 


BREAD  133 


HELPFUL  HINTS  ABOUT  BREAD-MAKING 

1.  To  keep  the  dough  from  cooling,  mix  and  knead  it 
quickly.  In  cold  weather,  warm  the  flour,  the  board,  and 
the  mixing-bowl. 

2.  The  longer  the  batter  is  beaten,  the  less  kneading  the 
dough  will  require.  When  the  dough  can  be  lifted  in  a  mass 
on  the  spoon,  it  is  ready  to  knead. 

3.  We  knead  bread  (l)  to  mix  the  ingredients  thoroughly, 
(2)  to  make  the  gluten  elastic,  and  (3)  to  work  in  air. 
Dough  is  sufficiently  kneaded  when  it  can  be  left  on  the  board 
for  a  minute  or  more  without  sticking.  Use  as  little  flour  as 
possible. 

4.  By  using  not  less  than  one  yeast-cake  to  one  pint 
of  liquid  the  following  advantages  are  gained :  (l)  The 
bread  can  be  made  and  baked  within  five  hours.  (2)  It 
may  more  easily  be  kept  clean  and  free  from  kitchen  odors 
than  if  it  stood  longer.     (3)  It  has  not  time  to  sour. 

5.  If  you  are  unable  to  attend  to  the  dough  as  soon  as  it  is 
risen,  it  may  be  cut  down  (i.e.  scraped  away  from  the  sides 
of  the  bowl  and  pressed  over  into  the  centre)  and  allowed 
to  rise  again. 

6.  Dough  that  contains  large  bubbles  has  risen  too  fast 
or  too  long.  It  should  be  cut  down  and  rekneaded  to  dis- 
tribute the  gas  evenly.  Sour  dough  falls  in  the  middle,  is 
stringy,  and  smells  and  tastes  acid. 

7.  Use  round  or  French  bread-pans ;  in  the  corners  of 
rectangular  pans  the  dough  has  not  room  fully  to  expand. 
Make  small  loaves  always,  to  insure  the  bread^s  being  baked 


134     THEORY  AND  PRACTICE  OF  COOKERY 

through.  If  obliged  to  use  pans  more  than  four  inches 
broad,  bake  the  bread  from  one  hour  and  a  quarter  to  one 
hour  and  a  half,  decreasing  the  heat  after  the  first  half  hour. 
Why  should  it  be  decreased? 

8.  If  bread  rises  much  after  being  put  into  the  oven,  the 
heat  is  not  great  enough ;  if  it  begins  to  brown  in  less  than 
fifteen  minutes,  the  heat  is  too  great.  If  the  loaf  rises  or 
browns  more  on  one  side  than  on  the  other,  turn  it  around. 

9.  The  crust,  by  preventing  the  inside  of  the  loaf  from 
drying,  keeps  the  centre  from  becoming  hotter  than  about 
212°  F.     Which  is  more  digestible,  crust  or  crumb?     Why? 

10.  Bread  is  baked  when  it  shrinks  from  the  sides  of  the 
pan.  To  make  the  crust  crisp  and  tender,  rub  it  while  hot 
with  a  bit  of  butter  twisted  in  a  piece  of  cloth  or  paper. 
Set  fresh  loaves  on  edge  in  such  a  way  that  air  reaches  all 
sides  of  them.  When  cool  put  them  in  a  tin  box  or  stone 
jar.  Do  not  wrap  bread  in  cloth.  If  it  tends  to  dry 
quickly,  wrap  it  in  waxed  paper. 

Uses  for  stale  bread.  —  Stale  bread,  if  heated  in  a  closely 
covered  pan,  becomes  almost  like  new.  Keep  pieces  of 
stale  bread  by  themselves  in  a  jar  or  covered  bowl.  Stale 
slices  may  be  used  for  toast.  (See  directions  for  toasting 
bread,  p.  89.)  Dry  broken  pieces  in  a  warm  oven  until 
they  are  crisp,  but  not  brown.  Grind  them,  or  crush  them 
on  a  board  with  a  rolling-pin  kept  for  this  purpose ;  sift  the 
crumbs,  and  keep  them  in  a  jar  to  use  for  croquettes,  etc. 
They  will  keep  several  weeks.  Coarser  or  browned  crumbs 
may  be  used  for  the  tops  of  scalloped  dishes.  Stale  crumbs 
not  dried  are  suitable  for  bread  puddings,  and  filling  of 


BREAD  135 

scalloped  dishes.  Bread  dried  slowly  in  the  oven  till 
brittle  and  brown  all  through  is  liked  by  many  people  and 
is  excellent  for  children. 

Parker  House  Rolls 

Flour,  4  c.  Compressed  yeast,  1  cake,  mixed 

Salt,  1  t.  with 

Butter,  2  tb.  Lukewarm  water,  |  c. 

Scalded  milk,  1  c.  Sugar,  1  tb. 

Extra  butter. 

Reserve  one-half  cupful  of  flour.  Pour  the  hot  milk  on 
the  salt,  sugar,  and  butter.  When  it  has  become  lukewarm, 
stir  into  it  the  yeast  and  add  the  flour  gradually,  using  as 
much  of  the  reserved  portion  as  is  necessary.  When  stiff 
enough,  knead  the  dough  on  a  board.  Let  it  rise  until 
tripled  in  bulk.  Roll  out  about  one-half  inch  thick,  cut 
with  a  biscuit-cutter,  spread  lightly  with  melted  butter, 
crease  with  the  back  of  a  knife-handle  dipped  in  flour, 
and  fold  almost  double.  Let  the  rolls  rise  until  doubled  in 
bulk  (about  twenty  minutes).  Brush  them  with  water  or 
milk,  and  bake  in  a  very  hot  oven  fifteen  minutes. 

Swedish  Rolls 

Flour,  about  4  c.  Compressed  yeast,  1  cake,  mixed  with 

Sugar,  2  tb.  Lukewarm  water,  |  c. 

Salt,  h  t.  Eggs,  2. 

Butter,  2  tb.  Currants,  about  ^  c. 

Scalded  milk,  1  c.  Extra  butter  and  sugar. 

Put  sugar,  salt,  and  butter  in  a  bowl.  Pour  upon  them 
the  hot  milk.     When  the  milk  has  become  lukewarm,  stir 


136     THEORY  AND  PRACTICE  OF  COOKERY 

in  the  yeast.  Add  enough  flour  to  make  a  drop-batter, 
beating  till  full  of  bubbles.  Let  it  rise  until  very  light.  Add 
the  beaten  eggs,  beat  well ;  add  enough  more  flour  to 
make  a  soft  dough,  knead  thoroughly,  and  let  it  rise  again. 
When  tripled  in  bulk,  roll  out,  with  as  little  handling  as 
possible,  into  a  rectangle  a  little  less  than  one-half  inch  in 
thickness;  spread  thinly  with  softened  butter,  working 
from  the  centre  toward  the  edges.  Sprinkle  with  currants 
and  sugar.  Roll  the  dough  up  into  a  cylinder  one  inch  in 
diameter,  and  cut  it  into  slices  one  inch  thick.  Place  these 
close  together,  cut  side  down,  on  shallow  greased  pans,  and 
let  them  rise  till  very  light.  Dissolve  one  teaspoonful  of 
sugar  in  two  tablespoonfuls  of  milk ;  brush  the  tops  of  the 
rolls  with  this  mixture,  and  bake  them  twenty  minutes  in  a 
hot  oven. 

Preparing  currants.  —  Cleaned  currants  in  packages  need 
only  be  picked  over.  To  clean  currants  bought  in  bulk, 
sprinkle  them  with  flour  and  rub  between  the  folds  of  a 
clean  cloth,  pick  off  stems,  rinse  currants  in  a  wire  strainer 
until  the  water  comes  through  clean,  shake  to  remove  water, 
and  dry  in  the  sun,  or  in  a  warm,  not  hot,  oven. 

Kinds  of  bread  and  their  food  value.  —  Bread  of  one  kind 
or  another  is  in  common  use  the  world  over.  Wheat  bread 
meets  the  needs  of  the  body  more  nearly  than  any  other  kind 
does.  About  half  the  dry  matter  of  wheat  bread  is  starch. 
Bread  contains  some  fat,  and  enough  protein  and  mineral 
matter  to  give  it  value  as  a  tissue-builder.  To  people 
among  whom  it  is  the  chief  article  of  diet,  its  tissue-build- 
ing material  is  of  first  importance.     By  those  who  eat  con- 


BREAD  137 

siderable  meat  or  other  protein  food,  bread  is  valued  more 
for  its  starch  and  other  non-nitrogenous  foodstuffs.  (Chart 
4.)  Graham  and  whole  wheat  breads  contain  and  supply  to 
the  body  more  mineral  matter  than  white  bread,  but  do  not 
supply  more  protein  as  some  people  suppose.  For  brain 
workers  and  inactive  people  coarse  breads  are  good  because 
the  bran  in  them  gives  bulk  and  tends  to  promote  intes- 
tinal activity. 

Digestion  of  bread.  —  Try  to  crumble  fresh  bread,  stale 
bread,  bread-crust,  soft  toast,  crisp  dry  toast.  Which 
crumble  more  easily  ?  Which  will  be  most  readily  broken 
up  by  the  teeth?  Well-chewed  bread  tastes  better  and 
satisfies  hunger  more  quickly  than  bread  swallowed  hastily. 

Chewing  helps  to  dissolve  food,  and  by  exciting  the  nerves 
communicating  between  the  mouth  and  other  digestive 
organs,  it  starts  a  flow  of  digestive  juices  toward  the 
stomach  and  intestines.  Where  is  starch  digested  ?  where 
is  protein  digested?  What  digests  them?  (Pp.  70,  86, 
369.) 

Should  we  buy  bread  or  make  it?  —  The  best  home- 
made bread  is  cheaper,  more  nutritious,  and  more  whole- 
some than  bought  bread.  The  process  of  bread-making  is 
not  so  difficult  as  many  people  suppose.  The  yeast  now 
obtainable  is  excellent  in  quality ;  and,  by  our  knowledge  of 
the  effect  of  different  temperatures  upon  it,  the  length  of 
time  consumed  by  the  rising  process  may  be  lengthened  or 
shortened  at  will.  By  placing  the  bowl  of  dough  in  warm 
water  the  time  required  for  rising  may  be  known  with  exact- 
ness, thus  lessening  the  necessity  for  constant  watching. 


138     THEORY  AND  PRACTICE  OF  COOKERY 

"  Home-made  "  is  the  standard  by  which  the  quality  of 
baker's  bread  is  judged.  Much  may  be  learned  from  some 
of  our  foreign  citizens,  notably  the  Italians,  who  use  a  good 
bread  flour,  knead  well,  thus  making  a  close  bread,  and  bake 
it  thoroughly.  ItaHan  bread,  both  baker's  and  home-made, 
especially  that  made  by  Sicilians,  is  among  the  best  in  the 
world. 

Some  people  have  neither  time  nor  a  good  place  for  mak- 
ing bread,  and  it  is  important  that  bakeries  be  so  regulated 
and  inspected  that  clean  and  good  bread  can  be  bought. 

Brief  Reference  List 

For  further  development  of  topics  treated  in  this  section 
see :  — 

Conn  :  Bacteria,  yeasts,  and  molds  in  the  home. 

Buchanan  :  Household  bacteriology.     Ch.  25. 

Grant  :  Chemistry  of  bread-making.    Ch.  9. 

BiGELOW :  Applied  biology.     Pp.  268-276,  Yeast-plants. 

National  Geographic  Magazine  :  Making  bread  in  different  parts  of 
the  world.    V.  19,  1908,  no.  3,  pp.  165-179.     lUust. 

U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agriculture  :  Bureau  of  Chemistry.  Bulletin  164. 
Graham  flour. 

U.  S.  Dept  of  Agriculture  :  Farmers'  bulletin  389.  Bread  and  bread- 
making. 


CHAPTER  V 
FOOD  IN  ITS  RELATION  TO  LIFE 

Section  1.    Bodystuffs  and  Foodstuffs 

Body,  organs,  tissues,  cells. — The  body  of  a  human  being, 
like  the  bodies  of  most  animals  and  plants,  consists  of  parts 
called  organs.  The  special  work  of  each  organ  is  called  its 
function.  What  is  the  function  of  the  eye?  of  the  lungs? 
of  the  stomach?  of  a  root?  of  a  leaf?  Organs  differ  from 
one  another,  not  in  function  only,  but  also  in  make-up,  or 
structure.  The  various  kinds  of  material  composing  the 
organs  of  the  body  are  called  tissues.  Bony  tissue  is  found 
in  bones  and  teeth,  muscular  tissue  in  muscles,  and  nervous 
tissue  in  nerves  and  brain.  The  tissues  of  the  body  are  made 
up  of  cells,  as  the  walls  of  a  house  are  constructed  of  bricks. 
Instead,  however,  of  being  laid  together,  as  bricks  are,  these 
cells  grow  together,  each  kind  of  tissue  being  built  of  similar 
cells  of  a  particular  kind. 

Cells  in  the  body  not  all  alike.  —  One  yeast-cell  is  much 
like  another,  but  how  about  the  cells  in  a  grain  of  wheat? 
Starch-cells  differ  from  bran-cells  in  structure  because  they 
differ  in  function.  Each  yeast-cell  is  independent,  doing  all 
its  own  work ;  but  in  higher  forms  of  life,  both  plant  and 
animal,  where  many  cells  are  joined  together  in  one  individ- 
ual,  some    have   one    function,   some   another.     We  may 

139 


140     THEORY  AND  PRACTICE  OF  COOKERY 

compare  a  yeast-plant  to  a  man  living  alone,  preparing  his 
own  food  and  making  everything  he  needs,  while  a  tree  or  a 
horse  or  the  body  of  a  human  being  is  like  a  nation,  in  which 
some  men  are  farmers,  some  manufacturers,  some  merchants, 
and  so  on.  And  just  as  the  merchant  does  not  understand 
farming,  nor  the  man  who  raises  wheat  know  how  to  make 
it  into  flour,  so  a  cell  of  one  kind  cannot  do  the  work  of 
another.  Cells  in  lung  tissue,  for  example,  are  adapted  for 
absorbing  oxygen,  and  cells  in  the  retina  of  the  eye  for  re- 
ceiving rays  of  light ;  but  neither  kind  of  cell  is  able  to  take 
in  food  until  it  has  been  prepared  for  them  by  the  work  of 
other  cells.     (Chap.  15.) 

Protoplasm.  —  All  living  cells  have  for  their  basic  sub- 
stance a  very  thin  translucent  jelly.  This  is  protoplasm,  the 
only  thing  in  plants  and  animals  that  is  really  alive.  The 
meaning  of  the  word  protoplasm  is  first-formed,  or  first- 
created. 

Foodstuffs.  — Food  contains  five  different  classes  of  food- 
stuffs :  protein,  fat,  carbohydrate,  mineral  matter,  and  water. 
Any  food  must  contain  at  least  one  of  the  first  four.  We 
already  know  that  protein  builds  tissue,  and  that  fat,  carbo- 
hydrate, and  protein  all  are  burned  to  supply  energy,  giving 
out  heat  in  the  process.  (Pp.  71,  86.)  The  value  of  any  food 
as  an  energy-producer  is  called  its  fuel  value.  The  mineral 
part  of  food  is  often  termed  ash,  because  it  is  left,  when  all 
the  rest  of  the  food,  even  the  carbon,  is  burned  up.  As  this 
plainly  shows,  mineral  matter  has  no  fuel  value,  but  it  helps 
to  build  tissue.  The  organic  acids  in  fruits  and  fermented 
foods  have  fuel  value,  though  not  so  much  as  carbohydrates 


FOOD  IN  ITS  RELATION  TO  LIFE  141 

have.  Water  cannot  be  said  to  build  tissue,  but  it  keeps 
up  the  supply  of  water  in  both  the  tissues  and  the  fluids  of 
the  body.  Both  water  and  mineral  matter  have  a  special 
work  to  do  in  keeping  all  tissues  and  fluids  in  healthy  con- 
dition, and  in  taking  an  essential  part  in  digestion  and  the 
various  other  processes  which  go  on  in  the  body. 

The  special  value  of  protein.  —  Protoplasm  cannot  be 
made  without  protein,  because  only  in  protein  is  nitrogen 
found  combined  in  a  certain  way  with  carbon,  hydrogen,  and 
oxygen.  Plants  draw  up  other  nitrogen  compounds  from 
the  soil  and  turn  them  into  protein ;  but  animals  and  man 
must  obtain  protein  ready-made  in  their  food.  Therefore  we 
require  a  certain  amount  of  protein  food,  no  matter  how  well 
supplied  we  may  be  with  other  foods.  Proteins  differ 
according  to  the  way  in  which  the  elements  in  them  are 
arranged.  There  is  one  kind  of  albumin  in  eggs,  another  in 
milk,  another  in  meat.  Some  proteins  contain,  besides  the 
five  elements  already  mentioned,  iron  or  phosphorus  or 
both. 

Proteins  are  not  all  equally  good  tissue-builders.  The 
proteins  of  eggs  and  milk  are  among  the  best.  Gelatin, 
found  in  cooked  meat,  and  zein,  the  chief  protein  of  maize, 
are  among  the  poorest.  Tissue  cannot  be  built  from  either 
gelatin  or  zein  alone.  Indeed,  proteins  seem  to  build  better 
when  they  work  together.  For  this  reason  there  is  sense  in 
our  practice  of  using  a  variety  of  protein  foods. 

The  special  value  of  carbohydrate  and  fat.  —  Although 
protein  supplies  both  building-material  and  fuel,  so  that  in 
theory  one  might  live  upon  protein  (with  water  and  mineral 


142     THEORY  AND  PRACTICE  OF  COOKERY 

matter),  it  is  more  economical  and  in  the  long  run  more 
healthful  to  depend  largely  upon  fat  and  carbohydrate  for 
fuel.  (Which  kinds  of  food,  generally  speaking,  are  the  most 
expensive,  animal  or  vegetable?  From  which  do  we  get 
most  of  our  carbohydrate?)  Any  fat  not  used  at  once  for 
fuel  may  be  stored  in  the  body  until  needed.  A  layer  of 
fat  under  the  skin  protects  against  cold.  As  a  rule  carbohy- 
drates are  rapidly  used  up  in  producing  energy,  but  they  can 
be  changed  into  fat  and  stored.  Starch  and  sugar  are  the 
most  abundant  of  carbohydrates.  Dextrin  occurs  in  smaller 
quantities.  Glycogen  is  an  animal  carbohydrate  something 
like  dextrin.  It  is  stored  as  reserve  fuel ;  in  men  and  animals 
mostly  in  the  liver,  but  in  shellfish  more  generally  through- 
out the  tissues. 

The  importance  of  mineral  matter.  —  The  ash  from  a  mix- 
ture of  foods  contains  iron,  sulphur,  phosphorus,  potassium, 
sodium,  and  other  elements,  mostly  in  the  form  of  mineral 
salts.  The  only  mineral  salts  not  entering  the  body  as  a 
part  of  some  food  are  common  salt  (sodium  chloride)  and  the 
salts  in  mineral  waters.  Some  of  the  salts  in  food  are  simply 
dissolved  in  animal  fluids  or  plant  juices.  Others  are 
joined  to  proteins.  All  of  these  elements  are  essential  to 
healthy  life,  and  as  one  element  cannot  take  the  place  of 
another,  it  is  important  to  eat  a  sufficient  variety  of  food 
to  supply  them  all.  If  we  eat  enough  protein,  we  shall  ob- 
tain all  the  sulphur  we  need,  but  we  are  not  sure  of  getting 
enough  iron  or  phosphorus.  Lack  of  phosphorus  is  as 
harmful  as  lack  of  protein,  phosphorus  being  necessary  to 
many  tissues,  particularly  to  the  brain  and  nerves.     Phos- 


FOOD  IN  ITS  RELATION  TO  LIFE  143 

phorus  is  supplied  by  milk,  eggs,  certain  vegetables,  and  by- 
cereal  foods  which  include  part  at  least  of  the  outer  layers  of 
the  grain,  such  as  whole  wheat  and  natural  brown  rice. 
Calcium  gives  hardness  to  bones  and  teeth.  Calcium  salts 
are  plentiful  in  milk  and  cheese.  Iron  makes  good  red  blood. 
There  is  much-  iron  in  lean  meat,  but  it  is  found  in  a  more 
nutritious  form  in  milk,  eggs,  cereals,  vegetables,  and  fruits. 
Salts  also  help  to  regulate  digestion,  circulation,  and  other 
body-processes. 

Acid-forming  and  base-forming  foods.  —  Acid  and  alkali 
neutralize  each  other  in  the  body  as  they  do  in  baking- 
powder.  (P.  109.)  The  alkalies  found  in  the  body  have 
another  name,  bases.  An  excess  of  acid  is  not  good  for  the 
health.  An  excess  of  bases  does  no  harm.  So  we  should 
eat  enough  base-forming  foods  to  neutralize  the  acid  present, 
or  even  a  little  more.  At  this  point  we  have  something  un- 
expected to  learn.  The  acids  of  fruits  and  vegetables  do 
not  remain  acid  in  the  body.  They  are  changed  into  bases. 
The  acids  derived  from  food  come  from  protein.  (P.  370.) 
This  may  sound  confusing  ;  but  what  we  need  to  remember  is 
simple.  Meat,  eggs,  fish,  and  milk  are  acid-forming  foods. 
Fruits  and  vegetables  are  base-forming  foods.  We  should  eat 
liberally  of  fruits  and  vegetables  to  neutralize  the  acid  from 
protein  foods.  This  gives  us  a  second  reason  for  eating 
potato  with  meat.     What  other  reason  is  there  ? 

The  three  functions  of  food.  —  What  we  have  learned 
makes  it  plain  that  the  functions  of  food  are :  (l)  to  furnish 
energy,  including  heat,  (2)  to  build  tissue,  (3)  to  regulate 
body-processes. 


144     THEORY  AND  PRACTICE  OF  COOKERY 

Waste  in  food.  —  Food  as  purchased  contains  some  un- 
eatable material,  inedible  it  is  termed,  such  as  egg-shells, 
pea-pods,  bones.  Other  portions  of  the  food,  often  con- 
sidered waste,  may  be  utilized.  For  example,  fruit-parings 
may  be  made  into  jelly,  meat-trimmings  and  celery-root 
used  for  soup. 

Food-adjuncts  are  materials  added  to  food  for  the  sake 
of  their  flavor  or  their  stimulating  effect  on  taste,  appetite, 
or  digestion.  They  include  condiments,  such  as  spices, 
pepper,  and  vinegar ;  herbs ;  onion-juice  and  other  vegetable 
flavorings ;  and  the  oils  of  the  vanilla  bean,  of  lemon,  and 
of  other  fruits  and  some  nuts.  Salt  and  sugar  are  used  as 
food-adjuncts  as  well  as  foods. 

Beverages  include  drinks  of  all  kinds.  Tea,  coffee,  and 
cocoa  are  treated  of  in  Chapter  XII.  Beverages  made  with 
unfermented  fruit-juices  (fresh  or  preserved)  are  wholesome, 
and  might  well  be  more  generally  used  in  the  home. 

Alcoholic  liquors  (rum,  whiskey,  gin,  brandy,  wine,  beer)  ^ 
are  made  of  the  fermented  juices  of  fruit  or  grain.  (See 
pp.  130,  131.)  They  contain  too  little  food  material  to 
be  worth  anything  as  food.  Instead  of  satisfying  hunger, 
alcohol  produces  an  unnatural  craving.  In  spite  of  the 
feeling  of  warmth  it  gives,  it  tends  to  lower  the  temperature 
of  the  body.  It  impairs  the  ability  to  work.  It  makes 
workmen   careless   and  liable  to   accidents.     It  builds  no 

^  Brandy,  rum,  and  whiskey  usually  contain  from  40  to  50  per  cent  of 
alcohol,  gin  somewhat  less.  Wine  contains  from  7  to  16  per  cent,  beer 
usually  3.5  to  4  per  cent  of  alcohol.  Wine  and  beer  drinkers,  however, 
may  drink  such  large  quantities  of  these  beverages  that  they  get  a  great 
deal  of  alcohol.    Root-beer  made  with  yeast  contains  alcohol. 


FOOD   IN   ITS   RELATION  TO   LIFE  145 

tissue.  On  the  contrary  it  injures  tissue,  particularly 
that  of  nerves  and  brain.  It  is  unnecessary  and  so  harm- 
ful that  in  a  considerable  part  of  the  United  States  the 
sale  of  liquor  is  prohibited  by  law. 

Valuable  properties  of  fresh  foods.  —  It  has  been  found 
that  people  cannot  keep  healthy  indefinitely  on  dried,  canned, 
or  otherwise  artificially  prepared  foods,  even  though  they 
contain  all  the  foodstuffs.  We  need  to  have  some  of  our 
food  in  its  natural  state,  fresh,  or  even  raw.  It  is  supposed 
that  fresh  food,  both  animal  and  vegetable,  contains  minute 
quantities  of  substances,  not  nutritious  in  themselves,  but 
essential  to  nutrition,  and  that  these  are  affected  by  heat, 
and  destroyed  by  prolonged  cooking  or  drying.  These  sub- 
stances have  been  named  vitamines  and  lipoids. 

Brief  Reference  List 

For  further  development  of  topics  treated  in  this  section 

see :  — 

Sherman:  Chemistry  of  food  and  nutrition. 

Sherman  :  Food  products.     In  particular  ch.  1. 

KiNNE  AND  CooLEY :  Foods  and  household  management.     Ch.  IS. 

Hutchison:  Food   and   the   principles   of  dietetics.      Especially   ch.  9, 

Alcohol. 
Greer  :  Food  —  what  it  is  and  does.    Pp.  178-216. 
Chittenden  :  Nutrition  of  man. 
Stiles  :  Nutritional  physiology.    Ch.  24,  Alcohol. 
Olsen  :  Pure  foods.     For  condiments  and  spices  see  ch.  17  and  18. 
Mendel  :  Nutritive  significance  of  different  kinds  of  foodstuffs.      Medical 

record,  v.  85,  no.  17,  1914. 
U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agriculture  :  Farmers'  Bulletin.     142.   Principles  of 

nutrition. 
Snell  :  Elementary  household  science.    Ch.  31-36. 


146     THEORY  AND  PRACTICE  OF  COOKERY 

Ritchie  :  Primer  of  physiology.      Ch.  1  and  2,  The  human  body  and 

the  cells  of  which  it  is  built. 
BiGELOW :  Applied  biology. 
Chittenden  :  Nutrition  of  man. 

Section  2.     Diet 

Food  requirements.  —  We  eat  not  merely  to  keep  our 
bodies  alive,  but  to  make  them  as  fit  as  possible  to  serve  us 
in  all  the  activities  of  life.  Food  requirements  vary  with  age, 
work,  climate,  and  other  conditions.  Attempts  have  been 
made  to  fix  dietary  standards,  that  is,  to  determine  the  ex- 
act amounts  of  each  class  of  foodstuffs  required  daily  by  a 
person  of  given  age,  weight,  and  habit  of  life.  As  a  result 
of  these  and  other  dietary  studies,  certain  facts  are  known 
which  should  guide  us  in  selecting  our  own  diet  or  in  pro- 
viding a  diet  for  others. 

Most  of  our  food  is  used  as  fuel  for  the  production  of 
energy.     Fuel  value  is  measured  in  units  called  calories. 

A  calorie  is  the  amount  of  heat  required  to  raise  1  kilo- 
gramme of  water  1°  Centigrade,  or  1  pound  of  water  about  4° 
Fahrenheit,  or  if  expressed  as  work,  the  energy  required  to 
raise  a  1-pound  weight  3087  feet. 

Protein  and  carbohydrate  have  about  the  same  fuel  value  ; 
fat  has  a  fuel  value  a  little  more  than  twice  as  great  as  either 
protein  or  carbohydrate.  The  food  eaten  each  day,  often 
termed  the  daily  ration,  should  include  carbohydrate,  protein, 
and  fat.  As  fuel  these  foodstuffs  can  to  a  certain  extent  take 
the  place  of  one  another ;  but  the  fuel  value  of  all  three  to- 
gether must  be  sufficient  to  furnish  the  required  heat  and 
energy.     The  amount   of  protein  not  used  for  fuel,   but 


FOOD   IN  ITS  RELATION  TO  LIFE  147 

for  the  repair,  and  in  young  people  for  the  growth,  of  living 
tissue,  is  also  measured  in  calories. 

Calculation  of  dietaries.  —  The  fuel  value  or  energy  value 
of  all  foods  in  common  use  has  been  ascertained  by  burning 
weighed  portions  of  them  and  measuring  exactly  the  amount 
of  heat  given  off  by  each.  Tables  have  been  prepared  stating 
these  fuel  values  in  calories.  Other  tables  have  been  made 
showing  just  how  much  by  weight  and  by  measure  of  any 
kind  of  food  is  required  to  furnish  100  calories.  With  the  aid 
of  these  tables  and  scales  to  weigh  food,  we  can  learn  to 
calculate  the  fuel  value  of  a  dish  or  of  a  meal,  and  to  plan 
a  meal  or  a  dietary  for  a  day  or  a  week  that  shall  provide 
one  person  or  a  family  with  the  number  of  calories  to  meet  its 
needs.  Of  course,  people  of  different  ages  and  degrees  of 
activity  require  different  numbers  of  calories,  a  grown  per- 
son more  than  a  child,  but  a  child  more  in  proportion  to  its 
weight  than  a  grown  person.  These  varying  requirements 
have  been  worked  out  and  tabulated. 

PRACTICAL  POINTS  ABOUT   FEEDING  A  FAMILY 

1.  Brain  workers  (teachers,  students,  clerks,  etc.)  need 
easily  digestible  food ;  muscle  workers  (working-men,  etc.) 
find  coarser  food  better  suited  to  their  needs. 

2.  No  one  meal  need  provide  the  different  foodstuffs  in 
any  given  proportion,  but  10  to  15%  of  the  total  calories  in 
each  day's  food  should  come  from  protein. 

3.  Diet  should  be  varied  as  well  as  mixed.  To  vary  the 
diet  is  the  surest  way  to  make  it  wholesome.  The  more 
kinds  of  foods  we  eat,  the  more  likely  we  are  to  obtain  all 
the  kinds  of  foodstuffs,  particularly  all  the  kinds  of  mineral 
matter,  that  we  need.     A  varied  diet  does  not  mean  many 


148     THEORY  AND  PRACTICE  OP  COOKERY 

dishes  at  one  meal.  A  boarding-house  table  which  offers 
many  different  foods  each  day,  but  practically  the  same  bill 
of  fare  week  in  and  week  out,  is  pretty  sure  to  be  deficient 
in  some  foodstuff  or  element.  A  rightly  varied  diet  changes 
from  week  to  week  and  with  the  season. 

4.  When  planning  a  meal,  think  what  was  served  at  the 
preceding  one;  if  starchy  foods  chiefly,  supply  plenty  of 
protein.  Do  not  forget  that  butter,  eggs,  milk,  etc.,  used  in 
cooking  count  as  food  just  as  much  as  if  served  by  themselves 
on  the  table.  By  planning  meals,  in  part  at  least,  for  several 
days  ahead,  you  will  find  it  easier  to  provide  varied  and 
rightly  balanced  fare. 

5.  Food  is  not  necessarily  nutritious  in  proportion  to  its 
cost.  (See  Economy  in  Marketing,  p.  183,  and  Selecting 
Vegetables,  p.  243.) 

6.  Remember  that  plant  protein  may  to  some  extent  take 
the  place  of  animal  protein ;  if  you  have  but  a  small  piece  of 
meat,  serve  peas  or  beans  with  it  rather  than  beets,  p.  238. 

7.  Familiarize  yourself  with  the  composition  of  common 
foods  so  that  you  may  readily  think  of  suitable  combinations 
and  know  how  to  supply  lack  of  one  food  by  another  of 
similar  character. 

Brief  Reference  List 

For  further  development  of  topics  treated  in  this  section 
see :  — 

Sherman  :  Chemistry  of  food  and  nutrition. 
Ritchie  :  Primer  of  physiology.     Ch.  18,  Foods  and  health. 
Barrows:  Principles    of   cookery.    Pp.    133-139   and    170-180,    Menu 
making. 


FOOD   IN  ITS  RELATION  TO   LIFE  149 

Terrill  :  Homehold  management.    Pp.  127-163,  Marketing. 

KiNNE  AND  CooLEY  I  Foods  and  household  management.    Ch.  17  and  18. 

Rose  :  Laboratory  handbook  for  dietetics. 

Richards  :  The  cost  of  food. 

Kerley  :  Short  talks  to  young  mothers. 

Kerley  :  Nutrition  of  school  children.     (Teachers  College  Record,  March, 

1905.) 
Jacobs  :  Menvrmaking  and  the  nutritive  value  of  meals.     (Journal  of  Home 

Economics.    V.  6,  no.  1,  Feb.  1914.) 
CoLWELL  AND  Wellman  :  Usc  of  Fishcr^s  lOO-calorie  portion.     (Journal  of 

Home  Economics,  Dec.  1910.) 
Chittenden  :  Nutrition  of  man. 


CHAPTER  VI 

MEAT,   FISH,   AND   POULTRY 

Section  1.    Meat:  Its  Structure,  Composition,  and 

Cooking 

Although  in  different  parts  of  the  world  the  flesh  of  many 
different  animals  is  used  for  food,  we  depend  mostly  upon 
that  of  cattle,  sheep,  and  hogs.  The  flesh  and  certain  edible 
organs  of  these  animals  constitute  our  meat.  The  term 
meat  may  be  used  to  include  fowls.  Beef  is  the  flesh  of 
mature  cattle,  veal  that  of  calves.  Mutton  is  the  flesh  of 
mature  sheep,  lamb  that  of  young  sheep.  The  flesh  of  hogs 
is  sold  fresh  as  pork,  smoked  as  ham  and  bacon. 

A   STUDY    OF    the    STRUCTURE    AND    COMPOSITION    OF    LEAN 

MEAT 

A.  Examine  a  piece  of  round  of  beef,  noting  its  fibrous  appearance.  Can 
you  see  any  fat  among  the  fibres?  Scrape  with,  a  knife  first  one  side,  then 
the  other,  of  one  of  the  pieces  of  meat  from  which  the  juice  has  been 
squeezed,  until  only  the  fibres  are  left.  Pick  some  of  them  apart  with 
a  needle.     Try  to  break  or  tear  them. 

B.  Heat  the  mass  of  fibre,  and  note  the  effect. 

Structure  of  meat  (muscular  tissue).  —  Each  fibre  is  a 
bundle  of  tube-shaped  cells  covered  and  bound  together 
with  a  web  of  white  connective  tissue,  threaded  by  tiny 
blood-vessels.     Toward  the  ends  of  the  muscles  the  fibres 

150 


MEAT,   FISH,   AND  POULTRY  151 

dwindle  down  till  only  a  firm  mass  of  connective  tissue, 
called  tendon,  is  left.  The  contents  of  the  tubes  and  blood- 
vessels may  be  scraped  out,  leaving  these,  with  the  connec- 
tive tissue,  in  a  pale-colored,  stringy  mass. 

Directions  for  making  raw  beef  sandwiches  (for  invalids). 

—  Cut  juicy,  lean  beef  into  thin  strips.  Scrape  the  pulp 
from  them,  season  it  highly  with  salt  and  pepper,  and  spread 
between  thin  slices  of  bread. 

What  two  animal  foods  have  we  already  used  and  studied  ? 
What  important  foodstuff  have  we  found  in  both  of  these? 
(Pp.  88  and  95.)     How  can  we  find  out  if  it  is  also  in  meat? 

Experiments.  —  A.  Dry  some  meat  slowly  for  several  hours.  Heat 
a  little  of  it  in  a  test-tube  with  lime.  What  odor  do  you  notice?  What 
foodstuff  is  present? 

B.  Nitric  acid  test  for  protein.  Caution.  —  This  test  must  be  made 
only  by  the  teacher  or  some  person  experienced  in  handling  chemicals.  Nitric 
acid  is  a  dangerous  fluid.  Put  a  few  bits  of  meat  into  a  test-tube  with  a 
little  water.  Add  a  few  drops  of  nitric  acid.  Boil  two  or  three  minutes. 
A  bright  yellow  color  appears.  Let  cool  and  add  a  few  drops  of  ammonia. 
The  color  turns  to  deep  orange. 

Any  food  material  may  be  tested  in  this  way  for  protein.  To  test  raw 
white-of-egg,  cut  it  with  scissors  until  half  a  teaspoonful  can  be  taken 
up.    Put  this  in  a  test-tube,  and  add  the  nitric  acid. 

Directions  for  extracting  beef -juice.  —  Use  a  one-half 
pound  slice  of  the  top  round  of  beef  cut  three-fourths  of  an 
inch  thick.  Place  it  in  a  wire  broiler.  Sear  both  sides 
quickly,  turning  it  frequently  until  it  swells  and  becomes 
spongy.  Cut  it  into  small  pieces.  Squeeze  these,  a  few  at 
a  time,  in  a  meat  press,  vegetable  press,  or  lemon  squeezer. 
Half  a  pound  of  meat  should  yield  two  ounces  of  juice. 


152     THEORY  AND  PRACTICE  OF  COOKERY 

Beef-juice  is  sometimes  prescribed  for  invalids.  (For 
directions  for  serving  it  see  p.  334.) 

Experiment  C.  —  Heat  beef -juice  in  a  test-tube.  Note  that  flakes 
form  in  it,  and  that  the  red  color  disappears. 

Composition  of  meat.  —  Lean  meat  contains  albumin 
dissolved  in  much  water.  It  also  contains  other  proteins 
some  of  which  are  not  soluble  in  water.  There  are  also 
present  small  amounts  of  other  nitrogenous  substances,  not 
proteins,  called  extractives.  Practically  all  the  proteins  are 
coagulated  by  heat.  Also  in  solution  are  various  mineral 
salts.  The  red  color  of  meat,  which  is  destroyed  by  heat, 
is  due  to  iron  salts  in  the  blood. 

Connective  tissue  consists  largely  of  collagen.  Heat 
causes  collagen  to  swell  and  force  the  juice  out  of  the  muscle 
fibres.  In  preparing  beef-juice,  the  object  is  to  heat  the 
meat  just  enough  to  express  the  juice,  but  not  enough  to 
coagulate  the  protein  in  it.  A  mass  of  connective  tissue, 
as  a  whole,  shrinks  when  heated,  owing  to  loss  of  water. 
Dry  heat  both  shrinks  and  hardens  it. 

Directions  for  preparing  beef-tea.  —  Cut  into  small  bits 
one  pound  of  beef  from  the  top  round.  Put  it  in  a  glass 
jar,  sprinkle  with  salt,  put  on  the  cover,  and  set  the  jar, 
wrapped  in  cloth,  or  supported  on  a  trivet,  in  a  kettle  of 
cold  water.  Heat  the  water  till  it  steams,  and  keep  it  as 
near  this  same  temperature  as  possible  until  the  meat  is 
colorless  and  the  juice  looks  rich  and  thick.     Do  not  strain. 

If  the  beef-tea  could  be  kept  at  just  the  right  temperature, 
the  proteins  would  remain  dissolved.     This  can  hardly  be 


MEAT,   FISH,  AND  POULTRY 


153 


U.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture 
Office  of  Experiment  Stations 
A.  C.  True:  Director 


Prepared  by 

C.  F.  LANGWORTHY 

Expert  in  Chaige  of  Nutrition  Investigations 


COMPOSITION  OF  FOOD  MATERIALS. 


mm 

Protein  Fat        Carbohydrates 

LAMB  CHOP 

EDIBLE  PORTION 

Water:53.1 


Ash 


Water 

PORK  CHOP 

EDIBLE  PORTION 

Water 


Fuel  Value 

^gSq. in. Equals 

1000  Calories 


Fat:.28.3 


Protein:  16 


30.1 


SMOKED  HAM 

EDIBLE  PORTION 

Water:  40.3 
Protein:  16.1 


sh:4.8 


DRIED  BEEF 

EDIBLE  PORTION 

Protein: 
30.0 


Fat:  18.5 


Protein:  18.6 
sh:1.0 


Fuel 

VALUE: 


1  1  30  CALORIES 
PER  POUND 


Fuel 

VALUE: 


Ash:9.1 

840  CALORIES 
PER  POUND 


Chart  5. 


154     THEORY  AND  PRACTICE  OF  COOKERY 

accomplished,  however.  If,  therefore,  the  tea  should  be 
strained,  it  would  no  longer  be  nutritious,  though  the 
extractives  remaining  in  it  would  give  it  a  strong  meat 
flavor. 

Experiments  showing  the  action  of  cold  water  and  of  salt  upon  meat.  — 
A.  Cover  a  bit  of  raw  meat  with  cold  water,  and  observe  how  quickly 
the  water  becomes  red.  What  does  this  show?  Is  anything  besides 
blood  drawn  out  ?  B.  Filter  the  water  through  filter-paper  and  heat 
the  filtrate;  i.e.,  the  Hquid  that  passes  through.  Has  any  albumin 
dissolved  in  the  water?  C.  Sprinkle  a  bit  of  raw  meat  with  salt.  What 
does  the  salt  do  to  the  juices  of  the  meat?  How  do  these  afterward  act 
upon  the  salt  ? 

What  conclusions  do  you  draw  from  these  experiments  with  regard  to 
(1)  putting  meat  into  water  to  wash  it,  and  (2)  salting  meat  before  cooking 
it? 

Care  of  uncooked  meat.  —  As  soon  as  meat  is  brought 
into  the  house,  take  it  out  of  the  wrapping-paper,  wipe  it 
with  a  damp  cloth,  cut  out  any  part  discolored  by  a  meat- 
hook,  and  set  it  away  in  a  cool  place. 

Reason  for  cooking  meat.  —  Meat  is  cooked,  not  to 
make  it  more  digestible,  but  chiefly  to  improve  its  flavor, 
and  to  soften  the  connective  tissue. 


HOW  TO   COOK   TENDER   MEAT!     BROILING,    ROASTING, 

BOILING 

When  the  whole  piece  of  meat  is  to  be  eaten,  we  desire  so 
to  cook  it  as  to  retain  all  the  juice.  This  is  done  by  expos- 
ing it  for  a  short  time  to  heat  intense  enough  to  harden  the 
albumin  on  its  surface,  thereby  sealing  up  the  juices  inside, 
and  then  for  a  longer  time  to  a  lower  temperature,  to  com- 


MEAT,  FISH,  AND  POULTRY  155 

plete  the  cooking  of  these  juices.  Can  you  think  of  two 
reasons  for  not  cooking  it  at  a  high  temperature  all  the 
time  ?  Should  you  choose  a  thick  or  a  thin  piece  of  meat 
for  broiling?  Why?  One  with  much  or  little  connective 
tissue  ?     Why  ? 

Meat :  tough  and  tender.  —  Meat,  to  be  wholesome, 
must  come  from  a  healthy  animal;  to  be  nutritious,  from 
a  well-nourished  one.  Much-used  muscles  absorb  much 
food  material,  making  rich,  juicy  meat.  This  is,  however, 
tougher  than  that  of  parts  less  used,  because  the  connective 
tissue  and  fibre  increase  as  well  as  the  contents  of  the  muscle- 
tubes.  In  which  parts  of  the  ox  or  sheep  should  you  expect 
to  find  tender  meat?  in  which  parts  tougher,  juicier  meat? 

How  to  know  good  beef.  —  The  lean  of  good  beef  is  firm, 
elastic,  and,  when  first  cut,  purplish  red,  the  surface  be- 
coming bright  red  and  moist  after  exposure  to  the  air.  The 
tenderer  cuts  are  fine-grained  and  well-mottled  with  fat ; 
a  thick  layer  of  firm,  light  straw-colored  fat  extends  over 
the  rib  and  loin  cuts ;  the  kidney  suet  is  white  and  crumbly. 
Flabby,  dark,  or  coarse  beef  with  yellow  fat  is  poor ;  if  it 
has  little  fat,  it  is  from  an  old  or  under-fed  creature. 

The  characteristics  of  good  mutton  and  lamb  are  similar 
to  those  of  good  beef,  excepting  that  the  lean  is  lighter- 
colored,  and  the  fat  whiter. 

The  best  cuts  for  broiling  are  steaks  from  the  loin  of  beef 
(short,  porter-house,  and  sirloin),  and  rib  or  loin  chops  of 
mutton  and  lamb.  (For  other  broiling  pieces,  see  table, 
pp.  186-193.) 


156     THEORY  AND  PRACTICE  OF  COOKERY 

Directions  for  Broiling  Beefsteak 
Time.  —  For  a  steak  one  inch  thick^  five  or  six  minutes ; 
one  and  one-half  inches  thick^  eight  to  ten  minutes.     (Never 
cut  steak  into  small  pieces.) 

Steak  properly  broiled  is  puffy  from  the  expansion  into 
steam  of  the  imprisoned  moisture,  well  browned  on  the 
outside,  and  juicy  and  red,  without  being  purplish,  to  within 
one-eighth  of  an  inch  of  the  surface.  Steak  less  than  one 
inch  thick  loses  so  much  water  by  evaporation  that  the 
inside  is  dry  before  the  outside  is  brown. 

(1)  To  broil  by  coal.  —  Put  a  platter  to  warm  before 
beginning  to  broil  the  steak.  Have  the  coals  glowing  hot, 
without  flame  or  smoke.  Grease  a  double  broiler  with  beef 
fat,  place  the  steak  in  it,  and  hold  it  near  the  coals  while 
counting  ten  slowly.  Turn  the  broiler,  and  hold  the  other 
side  down  for  the  same  length  of  time.  Continue  to  turn  the 
meat  about  once  in  ten  seconds  for  about  one  minute,  or 
until  it  is  well  seared ;  then  hold  it  farther  from  the  fire, 
turning  occasionally  until  the  surface  is  brown.^  Just 
before  taking  it  from  the  fire  sprinkle  with  salt  and  pepper, 
turning  each  side  once  more  to  the  heat  to  cook  the  season- 
ing in.  When  the  steak  is  cooked,  lift  it  on  to  the  platter, 
spread  both  sides  with  butter,  or  with  Maitre  d'Hotel  butter, 
garnish,  if  you  like,  with  water-cress  and  slices  of  lemon,  or 
with  parsley,  and  serve  without  delay. 

(2)  To  broil  by  gas.  —  Have  the  broiling  oven  hot.     Lay 

1  Reasons  for  turning  the  meat:  1.  To  prevent  the  escape  of  juice. 
The  meat  must  be  turned  just  before  the  juice  forced  out  of  the  tissues 
nearest  the  heat  begins  to  escape  from  the  upper  side;  if  it  overflows, 
it  will  drip  and  be  lost.     2.  To  insure  even  cooking. 


MEAT,   FISH,   AND  POULTRY  157 

the  meat  in  a  double  broiler  or  directly  on  the  rack  over  the 
pan.  In  the  latter  case  turn  the  meat  with  two  spoons  to 
avoid  piercing  it.  Proceed  as  in  broiling  over  coals,  except 
that  the  meat  requires  turning  only  three  or  four  times. 
Keep  the  door  open  (p.  15).  Turn  down  the  gas  and 
lower  the  pan,  if  necessary,  after  the  meat  is  seared. 

Lamb  and  mutton  chops  are  broiled  like  beefsteak, 
allowing  six  to  eight  minutes,  according  to  thickness.  Mut- 
ton chops  may  be  slightly  red  in  the  middle ;  lamb  chops 
are  usually  preferred  less  rare.  Tomato  sauce  or  green  peas 
may  be  served  with  chops. 

Pan-broiling.  —  Meat  cooked  on  a  pan  may  be  almost  as 
well-flavored  and  juicy  as  broiled  meat,  if  properly  done. 

Use  a  cast-iron,  not  a  sheet-iron,  pan,  and  let  it  become 
almost  red-hot  before  putting  the  meat  in.  Rub  it  lightly 
with  a  bit  of  fat  from  the  meat,  let  the  meat  lie  on  one  side 
till  seared,  then  turn  it,  and  continue  turning  it  occasionally 
until  done.  If  melted  fat  collects  in  the  pan,  pour  it  off. 
Season  and  serve  like  broiled  meat.  Turn  chops  on  edge 
for  a  few  moments  to  brown  the  fat. 

Is  pan-broiling  the  same  as  what  is  commonly  called 
"  frying  "?  Why  not?  What  objection  is  there  to  "  fry- 
ing "  meat  and  other  albuminous  foods?  Are  griddle  cakes 
"  fried  ''  ?     (Methods  of  cooking,  p.  49.) 

Maitre  d'Hotel  Butter 
Butter,  \  c.  Pepper,  f  .g. 

Lemon-juice,  1  tb.  sc.  Parsley,  cut  fine,  2  t. 

Salt,  ^  t. 

Cream  the  butter  and  stir  in  the  other  ingredients. 


158     THEORY  AND  PRACTICE  OF  COOKERY 

Tomato  Sauce  (for  Meat) 
Tomato,  1  pt.  A  sprig  of  parsley. 

Chopped  onion,  1  t.  Butter,  |  c. 

Whole  cloves,  2.  Flour,  |  c. 

A  bit  of  bay-leaf.  Salt,  1 1. 

Pepper,  1 1. 

Cook  the  first  five  ingredients  together  for  about  ten 
minutes.  Mix  the  others  in  a  saucepan  and  strain  into  them 
the  tomato  mixture.     Cook,  stirring,  till  the  sauce  boils. 

Which  is  the  largest,  a  short-steak,  a  porter-house,  or  a 
sirloin?  Observe  that  each  contains  one-half  of  one  of  the 
bones  of  the  spine  (vertebrce,  plural),  and  that  between  this 
bone  and  the  kidney  fat  lies  the  tenderest  part  of  the  steak. 
These  tender  parts  are  sections  of  the  tenderloin,  a  little- 
used  muscle  which  extends  along  the  spine  from  the  rear- 
most rib  to  the  hip  joint,  being  thickest  near  the  forward 
end  of  the  hip-bone,  where  hip-bone  sirloin  steaks  are  cut. 

Beef  grows  tougher  and  coarser  the  farther  down  it  lies  on 
the  flank.  Which  of  the  three  loin  cuts  of  steak  has  most 
flank  ?  Flank  ends  of  steak  should  be  trimmed  off  and  used 
for  soup  or  stew.  Why  not  broil  them?  Compare  sirloin 
or  porter-house  steak  with  a  lamb  or  mutton  loin  chop. 
Find  in  both  the  spinal  vertebra,  tenderloin,  outside  fat, 
kidney  fat,  and  flank.  Compare  a  rib  chop  with  the  cut  of 
beef  called  prime  roasting  ribs.  What  advantage  have 
loin  over  rib  chops  ?     (See  Plates  X  and  XI.) 

For  roasting,^  as  for  broiling,  tender  cuts  are  best.     Sir- 

1  To  roast  meat,  properly  speaking,  is  to  cook  it  before  an  open  grate, 
a  method  superseded  in  this  country  by  "oven-roasting,"  which  is  really 
baking. 


MEAT,   FISH,   AND  POULTRY  159 

loin  and  porter-house  roasts  are  compactly  rolled ;  rib 
pieces  may  be  either  roasted  whole,  forming  a  standing 
roast,  or  boned  and  rolled.  Leaving  in  the  bones  improves 
the  flavor,  but  the  thin  end  of  a  standing  roast  is  likely  to 
be  overdone  by  the  time  the  thick  end  is  sufficiently  cooked. 

Directions  for  Roasting  Beep 

Time.  —  Ten  or  twelve  minutes  to  the  pound.  The 
smaller  the  piece  of  meat  the  longer  the  time  per  pound. 

In  properly  roasted  beef,  the  outside  fat  is  brown  and 
crisp,  the  lean  brown  to  a  depth  of  not  more  than  one-fourth 
of  an  inch,  the  interior  evenly  red  and  full  of  juice. 

Have  the  oven  at  first  as  hot  as  for  bread. ^  Skewer  or 
tie  the  meat  into  compact  form,  place  on  a  rack  in  a  pan 
with  the  skin  side  down,  and  dredge  meat  and  pan  with 
flour.  In  the  pan  put  one  tablespoonful  of  salt  and  one- 
fourth  teaspoonful  of  pepper.  If  the  meat  is  very  lean,  put 
a  few  bits  of  fat  in  the  pan.  When  the  beef  is  seared  and 
the  flour  brown,  reduce  the  heat,  and  baste  the  meat ;  that 
is,  dip  over  it  the  melted  fat  from  the  pan.^  Baste  about 
once  in  ten  minutes  until  done.  After  half  an  hour  turn  the 
roast  over  to  brown  the  skin  side. 

To  make  brown  gravy.  —  After  removing  the  roast  to  the 
plate,  take  out  the  rack  and  pour  or  skim  off  most  of  the  fat 
from  the  liquid  in  the  pan.     Set  the  pan  on  the  stove,  and 

1  The  smaller  the  roast  the  hotter  should  be  the  oven.  It  is  well  to 
sear  a  small  roast  by  holding  each  part  of  its  surface  in  turn  on  a  hot 
frying-pan ;   if  this  is  done,  less  heat  is  required  in  the  oven. 

2  Reason  for  basting.  —  The  fat  and  flour,  aided  by  heat,  form  a  crust, 
imprisoning  the  juices  of  the  meat,  and  preventing  the  lean  from  charring. 


160     THEORY  AND  PRACTICE  OF  COOKERY 

dredge  into  this  liquid  about  three  tablespoonfuls  of  flour. 
Add  one  and  one-half  cupfuls  of  boiling  water,  and  boil  five 
minutes,  stirring.  Taste  to  see  how  much  salt  and  pepper 
is  required,  add  these,  and  strain  into  a  gravy  boat. 
(Browning  of  flour,  p.  69.) 

Experiment  to  show  the  effect  of  cold  and  of  hot  water  upon  meat.  — 

Into  each  of  two  test-tubes  put  two  bits  of  meat  of  the  same  size.  Cover 
one  with  cold  water,  the  other  with  hot  water,  and  boil  the  latter  for  two 
or  three  minutes.  After  letting  both  stand  for  ten  or  fifteen  minutes, 
observe  (a)  differences  in  the  appearance  of  the  bits  of  meat,  (b)  in  the 
appearance  of  the  water  in  the  two  test-tubes.  Which  piece  of  meat  has 
lost  the  most  juice?    Explain  why. 

Should  the  cooking  water  for  meat  be  cold  or  hot  when 
the  meat  is  put  into  it?  Why?  How  may  we  contrive 
to  retain  the  juice  and  yet  not  overcook  the  meat?  Is  it 
strictly  correct  to  call  meat  properly  cooked  in  water 
"boiled"  meat?  Which  is  higher  flavored,  roasted  or 
so-called  boiled  meat? 

The  great  heat  to  which  meat  is  exposed  in  broiling  or 
roasting  decomposes  some  of  its  constituents,  producing 
new  compounds  of  richer  flavor.  A  temperature  of  212°  F. 
being  too  low  to  produce  these  chemical  changes,  the  flavor 
of  meat  cooked  in  water  is,  by  comparison,  insipid. 

Directions  for  "Boiling"  a  Leg  of  Mutton 

Time.  —  Fifteen  minutes  to  the  pound. 

Cover  the  leg  of  mutton  with  boiling  water,  let  this  come 
to  the  boiling-point  again,  and  boil  five  minutes ;  skim  off 
the    coagulated    albumin    ("  scum ") ;  then    simmer   until 


MEAT,  FISH,  AND  POULTRY  161 

the  meat  is  tender.  Serve  with  Caper  Sauce,  made  by 
adding  one-half  cupful  of  capers,  drained,  to  one  and  one- 
half  cupfuls  of  Drawn  Butter  (recipe  on  p.  204)  made  with 
the  mutton  liquor. 

Salt  meats.  —  Corned  beef,  ham,  and  tongue,  which  are 
better  for  having  some  of  their  salt  drawn  out,  should  be 
put  to  cook  in  cold  water.  After  this  boils,  follow  the 
directions  for  cooking  a  leg  of  mutton. 

The  taste  of  water  in  which  meat  has  been  cooked  shows 
that  some  of  the  meat  has  escaped  into  it ;  save  it,  there- 
fore, to  use  in  soup-making.  Can  we  use  the  cooking  water 
from  salt  meat  for  soup  ? 

USES    FOR   THE    GELATINOUS    PARTS    OF   MEAT:     SOUP-STOCK 

AND   SOUPS 

Soup  an  economical  dish.  —  Soup,  by  some  people  mis- 
takenly thought  to  be  an  expensive  luxury,  is  generally  a 
means  of  economy,  since  a  soup,  tempting  and  nutritious, 
can  be  made  of  the  cheapest  materials,  including  remnants 
of  food  unfit  for  other  use.  Economy  means  management, 
not  saving  merely,  though  sometimes  wrongly  understood 
in  the  latter  sense.  Good  economy  includes  wise  spending 
and  using ;  it  is  as  wasteful  to  broil  meat  too  tough  to  be 
chewed  or  digested  as  it  would  be  to  throw  away  meat  that 
might  be  used  ;  it  is  as  prudent  to  purchase  a  small  quantity 
of  vegetables  and  seasonings,  which  will  help  to  make  a 
savory  soup  or  stew  out  of  material  useless  by  itself,  as  to 
refrain  from  buying  something  not  needed. 

M 


162     THEORY  AND  PRACTICE  OF  COOKERY 

Soup-stock.  —  Soup-stock  is  the  basis  of  all  meat  soups. 
It  consists  of  the  soluble  portions  of  meat,  vegetables,  and 
sometimes  other  ingredients  dissolved  in  water. 

Directions  for  Making  Soup-stock 

Raw  meat  and  bone,  about  2  lb. 

Cooked  meat,  or  meat  and  bone,  about  1  lb. 

Cold  water  (fresh,  or  from  cooked  meat  or  vegetables),  3  qt. 

To  each  pound  of  meat  and  bone  allow  of  onion,  carrot,  cut  into 
half-inch  cubes,  1  heaping  tablespoonful  each.^ 

Celery,  1  stalk  or  1  root.  Salt,  about  1 1. 

A  bit  of  bay-leaf.  Peppercorns,  2,  or 

A  sprig  of  parsley.  Pepper,  f .  g. 

Have  the  bones  sawed  into  inch  lengths  and  split ;  cut  the 
meat  into  inch  cubes  or  smaller.  Why?  If  the  raw  meat 
only  is  used,  brown  one-third  of  it  in  a  little  of  the  fat  in  a 
frying-pan.^  Let  meat  and  bones  soak  in  the  water  for  one 
hour,  then  simmer  in  a  covered  kettle  four  or  five  hours,  or 
until  the  meat  is  in  fragments.  About  one  hour  before 
taking  the  stock  from  the  fire,  add  to  it  the  vegetables  and 
seasonings.  When  the  vegetables  are  very  soft  strain  the 
stock  through  a  coarse  strainer  and  set  it  aside  for  twenty- 
four  hours,  or  until  the  fat  solidifies  on  its  surface.  Re- 
move every  speck  of  this  fat,  saving  it  to  try  out,  and  if  the 
stock  is  to  be  used  for  clear  soup,  clear  it  according  to  the 
directions  on  p.  167. 

Bone,  commonly  regarded  as  refuse,  is  called  for  in  the 

^  Seasonings  and  flavorings  may  be  varied  or,  in  part,  omitted. 
2  By  this  means  the  soup  gains  in  flavor,  though  at  the  cost  of  some 
food  value. 


MEAT,   FISH,  AND  POULTRY  163 

directions  for  making  soup-stock.  If  we  compare  this 
stock  with  bouillon,  or  with  any  broth  made  from  meat 
with  little  or  no  bone,  we  shall  find  that  the  first  is  jellied 
when  cold,  the  second  liquid.  What  is  there  in  bones  to 
make  this  difference  ? 

A  STUDY  OF  BONE 

A.  Examine  the  ends  of  a  shin-bone  sawed  in  two.  Where  is  the  bone 
the  hardest?  Where  is  it  spongy?  Where  soft?  The  soft  substance  is 
marrow.  Try  to  bend  or  break  the  bone.  Observe  the  tough  fibrous 
covering  on  the  ends  of  it. 

B.  Put  one  piece  of  the  bone  in  diluted  hydrochloric  acid  (six  parts 
of  water  to  one  part  of  acid) ;  after  a  few  days  compare  it  with  the  other 
piece.  Has  the  acid  changed  the  shape  of  the  bone ?  its  size?  How  has 
it  affected  it?  See  if  you  can  tie  it  in  a  knot.  What  makes  bone  hard? 
What,  then,  has  the  acid  taken  out  of  the  bone? 

C.  Tie  a  wire  around  the  other  piece  of  bone,  and  lay  it  for  half  an 
hour  in  a  hot  coal-fire.  Remove  it  by  means  of  the  wire.  How  has  it 
changed  ?    Does  it  break  easily  ?    What  part  of  the  bone  has  been  burned  ? 

Structure  and  composition  of  bone.  —  Bone  is  the  hardest 
of  animal  tissues,  yet  it  is  one-half  water ;  the  other  half 
consists  of  about  two-thirds  mineral,  and  one-third  animal 
matter,  the  mineral  being  largely  calcium  phosphate,  com- 
monly called  phosphate  of  lime ;  the  animal  matter  chiefly 
fat  and  collagen.^  In  the  centre  of  hollow  bone  is  a  mass  of 
fatty  stuff,  the  marrow.  Surrounding,  and,  in  some  cases, 
forming  the  end  of  the  bone  is  the  flexible,  slippery  substance 
called  cartilage,  or  gristle;  and,  connecting  bones  at  the 
joints,  are  bands  or  ligaments  of  cartilage.  Cartilage  may 
be  considered  soft  bone,  since  it  differs  from  bone  mainly 
1  Often  called  ossein  in  bones. 


164     THEORY  AND  PRACTICE  OF  COOKERY 

in  having  less  mineral  matter.  The  bones  of  children  and 
young  animals  are  soft  because  they  are  cartilaginous; 
the  older  the  individual  grows,  the  harder  the  bones  become. 
The  two  kinds  of  material  in  bone  may  be  separated  by 
soaking  in  acid;  which  dissolves  the  inorganic  substance ; 
or  by  burning,  which  destroys  the  organic. 

How  cooking  affects  bones.  —  By  long  cooking  in  water 
the  insoluble  collagen  and  similar  substances  of  connective 
tissue,  tendon,  cartilage,  and  bone  are  changed  to  gelatin, 
soluble  in  hot  water. ^ 

But  will  hot  water  best  draw  out  the  meat  juice?  How 
may  we  contrive  to  extract  all  j)ossible  food  value  from  both 
meat  and  bone?  And  how  may  we  also  give  to  soup  that 
rich  flavor  produced  only  by  heating  meat  to  above  212°  F.  ? 
All  these  points  must  be  considered  if  we  mean  to  make  the 
best  possible  soup  out  of  our  materials. 

The  soup-kettle  or  stock-pot.  —  Have  for  stock-making 
a  deep  kettle  with  a  tight-fitting  cover ;  the  tighter  the 
cover  the  smaller  is  the  amount  of  water  lost  by  evaporation. 
In  an  ordinary  kettle,  stock  may,  during  cooking,  lessen  by 
one-half;  in  a  soup-digester  with  a  steam-tight,  vaived 
cover,  evaporation  is  so  slight  that  one  pint  of  water  instead 
of  one  quart  may  be  allowed  to  one  pound  of  meat  and  bone. 

Fresh  material  may  be  added  to  that  already  in  the 
stock-pot,  provided  that  once  a  week  the  contents  are 
removed  and  the  pot  cleaned.  Fresh  material  must  be 
combined    with    "  left-overs  "    for    a    satisfactory    stock, 

^  In  changing  to  gelatin,  collagen  takes  up  water,  something  as  starch 
does  in  changing  to  starch-paste. 


MEAT,  FISH,  AND  POULTRY  165 

cooked  meat  alone  yielding  too  little  soluble  material. 
Fresh  herbs  and,  unless  a  varied  stock  of  cooked  vegeta- 
bles is  on  hand,  a  few  fresh  vegetables  are  required  for 
flavoring. 

Materials  for  soup-stock.  —  Put  raw-meat  trimmings 
cut  off  by  the  butcher,  flank  ends  of  steak,  etc.,  into  one  jar, 
bits  of  cooked  meat  and  bone,  except  mutton  fat,  which  is 
rank  in  flavor,  into  another  jar.  Keep  the  water  in  which 
meat  has  been  cooked.  Keep  separately,  because  it  sours  in 
about  two  days  —  quicker  than  meat-liquor  spoils  —  the 
cooking  water  from  rice  and  vegetables.  Use  sparingly 
water  from  strong-flavored  vegetables,  such  as  onion  and 
turnip,  and  do  not  use  cabbage  or  potato  water  at  all. 

Celery  and  asparagus  water  may  be  used  either  for  soup- 
stocks  or  for  cream-of-vegetable  soups.  (Chap.  VIII,  sect. 
3.)  Keep  by  themselves,  and  separate  from  one  another,  if 
possible,  remnants  of  vegetables,  rice,  macaroni,  etc. 

How  to  choose  soup  meat.  —  What  sort  of  meat  shall  we 
choose  for  soup-making,  —  tender  or  tough,  with  bone  or 
without  ?  What  advantage  has  the  meat  from  young  crea- 
tures over  that  from  old  ?  Soup  meat  should  include  some 
fat,  because  the  cake  formed  by  it  when  cold,  if  kept  un- 
broken, helps  to  preserve  the  stock. 

Compare  a  cut  from  the  loin  of  beef  with  one  from  the  leg 
(shin).  Compare  a  shin  of  beef  with  a  knuckle  of  veal 
(the  joint  of  a  calf's  hind  leg).  Which  will  yield  the  most 
juice?  the  most  gelatin?  the  highest  flavor?  Which  of 
these  cuts  would  you  expect  to  find  the  cheapest?     Why? 


166  THEORY  AND   PRACTICE  OF  COOKERY 

HELPFUL   HINTS   ABOUT   MAKING   AND    USING   SOUP-STOCK 

1.  Have  all  trimmings  sent  home  by  the  butcher  to  be 
used  in  making  stock. 

2.  On  account  of  its  strong,  fatty  flavor,  avoid  using 
much  mutton  in  stock  containing  other  meat. 

3.  For  white  stock  use  veal,  or  veal  and  chicken; 
for  dark  brown  stock  use  beef,  part  of  it  browned ;  and 
brown  all  the  vegetables.  Caramel  or  Kitchen  Bouquet 
is  used  to  darken  and  flavor  stock. 

4.  Stock  made  without  vegetables  keeps  best  in  hot 
weather.  When  taking  out  a  portion  of  such  stock  for 
soup,  add  for  each  pint  of  it  one  heaping  tablespoonful 
of  each  vegetable  included  in  the  Directions  for  Making 
Soup-stock,  cook  them  in  it  one  hour,  and  strain. 

5.  A  little  salt  helps  to  preserve  stock,  but  it  must  be 
used  sparingly  at  first,  because  the  stock  grows  Salter  as  it 
lessens  by  evaporation. 

6.  Do  not  try  to  extract  the  last  bit  of  gelatin  from  bones ; 
too  long  boiling  gives  stock  a  flavor  of  glue. 

7.  If  you  must  use  the  stock  the  day  it  is  made,  skim 
off  what  fat  you  can,  and  remove  the  rest  as  completely  as 
possible  with  absorbent  paper,  or  with  a  bit  of  ice  wrapped  in 
cloth.     The  fat  hardens  on  the  cloth  and  can  be  scraped  off. 

8.  Cook  vegetables,  macaroni,  and  other  materials  to  be 
served  in  soup  in  a  small  quantity  of  stock,  and  add  this 
with  them  to  the  portion  to  be  served.  If,  however,  the 
stock  is  weak,  so  that  it  would  be  improved  by  boiling  down, 
cook  this  material  in  the  whole  quantity  to  be  sent  to  table. 


MEAT,  FISH,  AND  POULTRY  167 

9.  Stock  used  instead  of  water  in  meat  sauces,  gravies, 
and  stews  makes  them  richer.  By  boiHng  meat  in  stock 
the  stock  itself  is  enriched. 

In  spite  of  care  in  keeping  soup-stock  below  the  boil- 
ing-point, some  albumin  coagulates,  a  part  of  which  settles 
and  a  part  rises  as  scum.  Skimming  off  this  scum  lessens 
the  food  value  of  the  soup,  already  small ;  soup,  both 
skimmed  and  cleared,  is  a  stimulant  merely,  still,  for  the 
sake  of  appearances,  a  perfectly  clear  soup  is  sometimes 
desired. 

To  clear  soup-stock.  —  Put  into  a  saucepan  the  stock  to 
be  cleared,  and  into  it  stir  the  whites  and  crushed  shells 
of  as  many  eggs  as  there  are  quarts  of  stock.  Heat  and 
stir  until  it  has  boiled  for  two  minutes ;  then  keep  it  hot, 
without  letting  it  simmer,  for  twenty  minutes,  in  order 
that  the  albumin,  as  it  coagulates,  may  entangle  every 
solid  particle  in  the  stock.  Pour  through  a  fine  strainer 
held  above  double  cheese-cloth  laid  over  another  strainer. 
The  first  strainer  keeps  the  scum  from  clogging  the  cloth. 

Meat  Soups 

The  following  soups  may  be  made  from  either  cleared 
or  uncleared  stock.  Season  them  to  taste  before  serving. 
For  macaroni  and  vermicelli  soups,  beef  stock  is  preferable  ; 
for  rice  and  barley  soups,  mutton  or  chicken  stock. 

Tomato  soup.  —  Add  to  one  pint  of  stock  one-half  can  of 
tomatoes,  stewed  and  strained,  and  one-half  teaspoonful 
of  sugar. 


168     THEORY  AND  PRACTICE  OP  COOKERY 

Mixed  vegetable  soup.  —  {In  winter.)  To  one  quart 
of  stock  add  two  heaping  tablespoonfuls  each  of  chopped 
onion  fried,  chopped  celery,  and  turnip  either  chopped 
or  cut  with  a  vegetable  cutter,  one  tablespoonful  of  carrot 
prepared  like  the  turnip,  and  one  cupful  of  cooked  and 
strained  tomato.  (In  summer.)  Omit  the  tomato  and 
onion,  and  add  small  green  peas,  flowerets  of  cauliflower,  or 
asparagus  tips,  or  all  three. 

Noodle  soup.  —  To  one  quart  of  stock  add  one-fourth 
cupful  of  noodles. 

Macaroni,  vermicelli,  rice,  and  barley  soups  take  their 
names  from  the  material  served  in  them.  Serve  with  these 
soups  crusty  bread  (plain  rolls,  or  inch-thick  slices  from  a 
French  loaf),  toasted  crackers  buttered,  or  cro<itons.  The 
dextrin  in  these,  like  the  extractives  of  meat,  stimulates 
digestion.     (Directions  for  Preparing  Croutons  on  p.  253.) 

Food  value  of  soup  and  soup  meat.  —  A  strong  broth 
contains  only  about  5%  of  nutritious  material.  Soup  as 
ordinarily  made  is  weaker  than  this.  Yet  soup  has  a  strong 
meat  flavor,  and  the  meat  left  in  the  soup  kettle  is  almost 
tasteless.  This  is  because  the  extractives,  which  give  meat 
its  flavor,  pass  wholly  into  the  stock.  The  extractives, 
although  not  nutritious,  stimulate  the  secretion  of  gastric 
juice.  The  combined  stimulating  and  warming  effect  of 
soup  prepares  the  stomach  for  solid  food. 

Soup  meat,  if  well  seasoned,  may  be  used  in  croquettes  and 
r^chauff^s  (pp.  175,  222).  It  is  likely  to  be  better  digested 
if  flavored  with  meat  extract,  or  if  served  after  a  meat  soup. 


MEAT,  FISH,  AND  POULTRY  169 

Wliat  class  of  foodstuffs  does  gastric  juice  act  upon? 
Which  of  these  are  found  in  meat  ?  What  other  foodstuffs 
does  meat  contain? 

GELATIN  JELLIES 

Gelatin  is  used  for  making  many  sweet  jellies  and  desserts, 
also  such  jellies  as  mint  jelly  and  tomato  jelly.  One  ounce 
of  gelatin  will  stiffen  from  three  and  one-half  to  four  cupfuls 
of  water  in  ordinary  weather.  In  hot  weather  or  on  a  wet 
day  more  is  required  ;  in  cold  weather,  less.  If  fruit  is  to  be 
moulded  in  the  jelly,  use  one  and  one-half  ounces  of  gelatin. 

General    directions    for    using    gelatin.  —  First    soften 

the  gelatin  by  soaking  in  cold  water, ^  then  dissolve  it  in 

boiling  water,  but  never  boil  it.     If  stirred  much  while 

hot  the  gelatin  may  become  stringy  and  refuse  to  jelly; 

for  this  reason,  do  not  stir  to  help  sugar  dissolve,  but  keep 

the  gelatin  mixture  hot  by  setting  the  bowl  over  hot  water. 

Strain  it   through   cheese-cloth   or  muslin   doubled  into  a 

mould,  and  set  it  away  to  cool,  in  summer  on  ice.     It  will 

jelly  in  from  three  to  six  hours.     The  larger  the  proportion 

of  gelatin  to  the  liquid,  the  sooner  it  sets,  but  too  much  makes 

the  jelly  taste  of  gelatin,  and  also  makes  it  tough.     Use  a 

mould  of  earthen  or  enamelled  ware  wet  with  cold  water 

just  before  it  is  filled.     See  that  it  stands  level  while  the 

jelly  is  cooling. 

1  Cooper's  gelatin  softens  in  ten  minutes ;  Knox's  requires  at  least 
fifteen ;  some  kinds  take  longer.  Follow  the  directions  on  box.  Granu- 
lated gelatin  is  more  easily  measured  than  that  in  sheets  or  shredded. 
A  two-ounce  box  of  granulated  gelatin  holds  five  tablespooiifuls.  Manu- 
facturers often  use  the  spelling  gelatine, 


170  THEORY  AND  PRACTICE  OF  COOKERY 

Lemon  Jelly 

Gelatin,  1  oz.,  or  if  granulated,         Boiling  water,  2^  c. 

2^  tb.  Sugar,  1  c. 

Cold  water,  §  c.  Lemon  juice,  |  c. 

Soak  the  gelatin  in  the  cold  water,  add  the  boiling  water, 
then  the  sugar,  and  stir  till  the  latter  is  dissolved.  Add 
the  lemon  juice,  and  strain  through  a  cloth  wrung  out  of 
hot  water  and  laid  over  a  wire  strainer  into  a  mould  wet 
with  cold  water. 

To  vary  the  flavor,  boil  in  the  water  one  inch  of  stick  cin- 
namon, and  the  thinly  shaved  peel  (yellow  only)  of  one  or 
two  lemons. 

For  Coffee  Jelly  use  one  cupful  of  strong  boiled  coffee,^ 
and  two  of  boiling  water.  Strain  through  a  fine  cloth, 
doubled. 

Serve  these  jellies  turned  out  in  a  glass  dish,  with  cream, 
whipped  or  unwhipped  ;  or  make  them  a  little  less  stiff,  and 
serve  lightly  broken  up,  as  ^'  Sparkling  Jelly.'' 

How  gelatin  is  made.  —  Gelatin  is  made  from  bone  and 
hide,  chiefly  from  scraps  left  from  making  bone  buttons  and 
skins  from  calves'  faces.  The  gelatin  is  extracted  from  these 
by  cooking  them  with  water  below  the  boiling-point.  The 
solution  of  gelatin  is  filtered,  concentrated,  and  cooled  in 
large  blocks.  The  blocks  are  sliced,  and  the  slices  dried 
on  wire  racks,  and  either  powdered  or  shredded.^ 

1  Made  with  two  tablespoonfuls  of  coffee  to  one  cupful  of  water. 

2  Analysis  shows  that  some  gelatin,  especially  the  cheaper  kinds,  such 
as  many  bakers,  confectioners,  and  ice-cream  makers  use,  is  impure  and 
unsafe  to  eat.     The  best  American  brands  are  among  the  best  made. 


MEAT,  FISH,   AND  POULTRY  171 

Gelatin  as  food.  —  Although  gelatin  may  serve  as  fuel 
and,  in  conjunction  with  other  proteins,  help  to  build  tissue, 
it  is  not  an  important  food.  It  is  used  because  it  provides 
a  convenient  way  of  serving  other  foods.    (P.  141.) 

HOW  TO   COOK   TOUGH   MEAT:     STEWING   AND   BRAISING 

We  have  seen  that  tender  meat  is  cooked  chiefly  to  im- 
prove its  color  and  flavor,  not  to  make  it  more  digestible ; 
but  tough  meat  requires  first  of  all  that  its  connective  tissue 
be  softened  to  enable  the  digestive  juices  to  reach  the  al- 
buminous matter  within.  (What  substance  in  plant  foods 
must  be  softened  by  cooking  in  order  that  the  starch  may  be 
reached?)  By  stewing,  tough  meat  may  be  softened  with 
the  least  possible  sacrifice  of  juiciness  and  flavor. 

Lamb  Stew 
Neck  or  shoulder  of  lamb,  1^  lb.  Rice,  2  tb. 

Boiling  water,  about  1  pt.  Tomato,  strained,  1  c. 

Potatoes,  4,  medium-sized,  quar-  or 

tered  and  parboiled. ^  Tomato  ketchup,  1  tb. 

Onion,  1,  about  1|  inches  in  Salt  and  pepper. 

diameter,  sliced. 

Brown  the  onion  in  a  little  of  the  fat  in  a  saucepan ; 
put  with  it  the  meat  cut  roughly  into  cube-shaped 
pieces  about  one  and  one-half  inches  thick,  and  sprinkled 
with  salt  and  pepper.  Cover  them  with  boiling  water, 
heat  this  to  the  boiling-point  again,  then  let  it  simmer 
directly  over  the  heat  for  two  hours ;  or  cook  it  over  hot 
water  for  three  hours,  or  until  the  meat  is  tender.  After 
^  Boiled  by  themselves  for  five  minutes.    Why  is  this  done  ? 


172     THEORY  AND  PRACTICE  OF  COOKERY 

one  hour  of  simmering  add  the  rice;  half  an  hour  before 
dishing  the  stew,  add  the  potatoes ;  when  they  are  done 
remove  the  bones  and  pieces  of  fat,  stir  in  the  tomato  or 
ketchup,  add  salt  and  pepper,  if  needed,  and  serve. 

How  does  stewing  differ  from  boiling?  from  soup- 
making?  Why  not  leave  the  meat  whole?  Why  not 
cut  it  as  small  as  for  soup  ? 

What  makes  a  stew  good.  —  In  a  good  stew  the  meat 
and  vegetables  are  tender,  the  broth  thick  and  savory. 
Onion,  ketchup,  minced  parsley,  tomato,  Worcestershire 
sauce,  or  other  vegetables  and  condiments  may  be  used  to 
give  flavor.  Lamb  or  mutton  stew  may  be  thickened  with 
rice ;  in  beef  stew  flour  is  commonly  used.  Stew  may  be 
served  in  a  platter  within  a  border  of  boiled  or  steamed  rice. 

For  a  brown  stew,  the  meat  and  sometimes  the  vegetables 
are  browned  in  hot  fat  before  being  simmered.  A  brown 
stew  without  vegetables  is  a  fricassee  (French  fricasser,  to 

fry). 

Start  a  brown  stew  in  cold  water.     Why  ? 

Dumplings  for  brown  beef  stew.  —  Sift  together  two 
cupfuls  of  flour,  two  teaspoonfuls  of  baking-powder,  and 
one  teaspoonful  of  salt.  Stir  in  enough  milk  or  water  to 
make  a  stiff  drop-batter.  When  the  stew  is  cooked,  set 
it  where  it  will  boil.  Drop  in  the  dumphng  mixture  by 
tablespoonfuls,  cover  closely,  and  boil  the  broth  steadily 
without  lifting  the  cover,  for  twelve  minutes.  Boiling  the 
meat  for  a  short  time  after  it  is  tender  will  not  harden  it. 

How  do  dumplings  differ  from  biscuit?  Why  is  no 
shortening  used  in  dumplings? 


MEAT,   FISH,   AND  POULTRY  173 

Choosing  stew  meat.  —  Stew  meat  should  be  selected 
from  a  cheap  cut,  as  higher-priced  meat  is  better  cooked 
in  other  ways ;  it  should  contain  bone  enough  to  make  the 
broth  gelatinous  and  well-flavored,  also  fat,  since  lean 
that  lies  next  to  fat  is  less  watery  than  an  all-lean  piece. 
What  cuts  of  beef,  of  lamb  or  mutton,  and  of  veal,  possess 
these  points?^  (See  table  on  pp.  186  to  193.)  Part  of 
the  melted  fat  may  be  skimmed  off  before  thickening  the 
stew ;   the  flour  or  rice  will  absorb  the  rest. 

Braising  is  steaming  meat  in  its  own  juices  —  a  method 
suitable  for  solid  pieces  of  meat  not  tender  enough  for 
roasting,  but  of  better  quality  than  those  utilized  in  soups 
and  stews.  (For  cuts  of  meat  suitable  for  braising,  see 
table.)  The  retention  of  steam  under  a  cover,  together 
with  basting  with  the  broth,  keeps  the  meat  moist  enough 
to  permit  the  juices  to  flow,  while  the  oven  heat  is  intense 
enough  to  develop  a  rich  flavor  in  both  meat  and  broth. 

Rolled  Flank  of  Beef  (Plate  X) 

One  flank  steak,  or  one  pound  of  top-round  steak  one-half  inch  thick. 

Suet,  2  or  3  small  slices.  Carrot,  cubed,  |  c. 

Onion,  1  small  one,  sliced.  Boiling  water  or  stock,  1  c. 

Stuffing  made  from :  — 

Soft  bread  crumbs,  1  c.  Celery  cut  fine,  2  tb. 

Melted  butter,  2  tb.  Salt,  ^  t. 

Parsley  cut  fine,  2  tb.  Paprika,  i  t. 

Onion  juice,  ^  t. 

1  Top  round  of  beef  may  be  larded,  browned,  and  stewed  very  slowly 
for  four  or  five  hours.  Cooked  in  this  way  with  vegetables  it  is  called 
Beef  d  la  Mode. 


174     THEORY  AND  PRACTICE  OF  COOKERY 

Trim  the  edges  of  the  steak,  spread  over  it  the  stuffing, 
roll  and  tie  it,  and  lay  it  on  the  onion  and  carrot  in  a  pan, 
with  the  suet  on  top.  Pour  the  water  or  stock  into  the 
pan ;  cook  closely  covered  until  tender  (about  1  hour  or 
more),  in  a  hot  oven ;  then  uncover,  and  cook  until  browned. 
Serve  with  Brown  Gravy  made  from  the  drippings  in  the 
pan. 

The  steak  may  be  larded  instead  of  covered  with  suet. 
Insert  with  a  larding-needle  two  rows  of  salt-pork  strips 
(lardoons)  two  inches  long  and  one-fourth  of  an  inch  thick. 


HELPFUL  HINTS  ABOUT  BRAISING  AND   STEWING 

1.  Remnants  of  cooked  meat  may  be  stewed,  either  by 
themselves,  or  with  uncooked  meat. 

2.  Only  the  best  portions  of  stew  meat  should  be  browned ; 
very  coarse  or  gristly  pieces  may  be  simmered  by  them- 
selves, and  only  the  broth  added  to  the  stew. 

3.  To  make  sure  that  the  stew  shall  not  boil,  cook  it 
in  a  double  boiler,  allowing  half  again  as  much  time  as 
for  cooking  by  direct  heat.  Stew  meat  that  has  boiled 
may  look  tender  because  its  fibres,  loosened  by  the  soften- 
ing of  the  connective  tissue,  fall  apart ;  but  the  fibres  them- 
selves will  be  found  hard  to  chew  and  digest. 

4.  In  stewing,  add  water  from  time  to  time,  enough 
to  keep  the  meat  covered.  If  the  broth  is  too  watery, 
boil  it  down  before  pouring  it  over  the  meat. 

5.  Braised  meat  may  be  cooked  uncovered  the  latter 
part  of  the  time. 


PLATE  IX. 


Top  Sirloin  beady  fob  Roasting. 


Leg  of  Mutton. 
(Hind.) 


FOBEQUABTER     OF     MUT- 

TON.  (Rib  portion  ,  sep- 
arated from^slM)>il4e^.)% , 


Rolled  Flank  of  Beef,  labded,  bbaised,  and  abbanged 
ON  A  Bed  of  Vegetables. 


rr-       IV^% 


MEAT,  FISH,   AND  POULTRY  175 

WARMED-OVER  DISHES    (rECHAUFFES  ^) 

Delicious  meat  dishes  may  be  prepared  from  remnants 
of  cooked  meat  such  as  thriftless  housekeepers  throw  away 
and  unskilful  ones  warm  over  carelessly  in  a  frying-pan. 

Learn  to  combine  acceptably  whatever  materials  you 
have  on  hand,  varying  the  regular  recipes  to  suit  the  case. 
For  example,  you  may  substitute  bread-crumbs  or  maca- 
roni for  potatoes,  stewed  tomatoes  for  gravy,  rice  for  maca- 
roni, and  so  on.  Be  sure  to  make  the  dish  look  attractive, 
and  if  possible  find  for  it  an  appetizing  name.  Skill  in  us- 
ing up  left-overs  provides  many  a  dainty  and  saves  many 
a  dollar. 

How  to  prepare  meat  to  be  used  in  rechauffes.  —  Re- 
move all  bone  and  gristle,  and,  when  the  meat  is  to  be 
hashed,  trim  off  the  fat.  Save  the  bones  for  soup-stock, 
the  fat  for  trying  out.  Cut  the  meat  in  cubes  or  thin 
slices,  or  chop  it  fine.  If  tender  and  well-cooked,  take 
care  to  reheat  it  only,  not  recook  it ;  if  tough  or  underdone, 
simmer  it  until  tender,  saving  the  cooking  water  to  make  a 
sauce.  Season  it  rather  highly,  since  meat  after  cooling 
is  less  savory  than  when  fresh-cooked. 

Directions  for  making  hash.  —  Mix  and  heat  together 
equal  parts  of  chopped  cooked  meat  and  chopped  boiled 
potatoes.  If  dry,  add  for  each  pint  of  hash  one  table- 
spoonful  of  butter  or  drippings,  and  two  of  hot  water  or 
stock.  Season  with  salt  and  pepper,  adding  onion  juice, 
parsley,  or  other  seasoning,  if  desired. 

*  French,  r6chauffer,  to  heat  again. 


176     THEORY  AND  PRACTICE  OF  COOKERY 

To  brown  hash,  add  two  teaspoonfuls  of  milk;  let  the 
hash  cook  unstirred  till  brown  on  one  side ;  fold  like  omelet. 

Corned  Beef  Hash 

Boiled  corned  beef  (about  one-fourth  fat),  1  part. 
Boiled  potatoes,  2  parts. 
Onion  juice,  a  few  drops. 

Pepper. 

Chop  or  grind  the  corned  beef,  not  too  fine.  Chop  the 
potatoes  by  themselves  and  mix  them  with  the  meat. 
Season  and  heat  over  hot  water,  or  in  a  frying-pan  over 
moderate  heat. 

Minced  meat  on  toast.  —  Chop  fine  any  cold,  lean  meat. 

Season,  and  warm  in  gravy  or  sauce  sufficient  to  moisten 

it.     Spread  on  slices  of  crisp  toast  dipped  in  salted  water. 

(P.  89.) 

Chartreuse  of  Rice  and  Meat 

Rice,  1  c.  Hot  water,  stock,  or  gravy  enough  to 
Cooked  meat,  minced,  2  c.  enable   the   meat   to   be   packed 

Bread  or  cracker  crumbs,  I  c.  solidly. 

Salt.  Pepper. 

Other  seasonings  to  taste;  e.g.,  with  chicken,  two  teaspoonfuls  of 
parsley,  fine  cut,  and  celery  salt;  with  veal,  two  tablespoonfuls  minced 
onion  fried  in  butter,  and  ten  or  twelve  drops  of  lemon  juice ;  with  mut- 
ton or  lamb,  fried  onion  and  minced  celery,  or  celery  salt ;  with  beef,  fried 
onion. 

Boil  the  rice.  (For  directions,  see  p.  74.)  Prepare 
and  mix  the  other  ingredients.  Line  a  buttered  mould 
with  a  one-half  inch  layer  of  boiled  rice,  well  pressed  down ; 
pack  in  the  meat  mixture;    cover  it  with  rice;    set  the 


MEAT,  FISH,   AND  POULTRY  177 

bowl  in  hot  water ;  and  steam  for  about  forty-five  minutes. 
Turn  out  of  the  mould  and  serve  with  Tomato  Sauce  (p.  158) 
around  it. 

Meat  pie.  —  Fill  a  deep  earthen  dish  with  cooked  meat 
cut  small.  Mix  in  cut-up  potatoes  and  other  vegetables  if 
desired.  Moisten  with  gravy.  The  gravy  should  almost 
cover  the  meat.  If  there  is  not  enough,  add  hot  water,  and 
if  necessary,  thicken  it  slightly  with  flour.  Season  the 
mixture.  For  the  crust  make  biscuit  dough  according  to 
recipe  on  page  100  (using  half  the  recipe  for  a  small  pie). 
Pat  out  the  dough  to  the  size  of  the  dish,  and  spread  it  over 
the  meat.  Press  down  the  edges  to  make  it  fit  the  dish. 
Make  a  few  holes  in  the  crust  to  let  out  steam.  Bake  till 
the  crust  is  light  brown.  Mashed  potato  may  take  the 
place  of  a  biscuit  crust. 

Section  2.    Meat  :  Cuts,  Marketing,  and  Food  Value 

Section  1  has  made  us  familiar  with  a  number  of  cuts  of 
beef  and  mutton,  and  with  ways  of  cooking  them.  In  the 
market  we  find  all  these  cuts  and  many  more ;  in  order  to 
select  wisely  from  them  the  housekeeper  must  study  them 
until  she  not  only  knows  one  kind  of  meat  from  another, 
and  poor  meat  from  good,  but  can  readily  recognize  any 
cut,  trimmed  or  untrimmed,  and  knows  the  market  value 
and  food  value  of  each. 

How  beef  is  cut  up  for  sale.^  —  Let  us  see  first  in  what 

1  Diagrams  and  descriptions  in  this  text-book  follow  New  York  City 
customs.  For  other  ways  of  cutting  and  of  naming  cuts  see  Farmers' 
Bulletin  No.  84,  Meats :   Composition  and  Cooking. 


178 


THEORY  AND  PRACTICE  OF  COOKERY 


shape  the  butcher  receives  his  stock-in-trade.  The  beef- 
creature  is  sent  to  market  spUt  into  halves  called  '^  sides  of 
beef.''  These  the  butcher  divides,  first  into  forequarter 
and  hindquarter,  then  into  pieces  (see  Fig.  11),  and  these 
into  cuts  to  suit  customers.  The  weight  of  a  side  of  beef 
as  it  hangs  by  the  hind  leg  throws  the  shoulder-bone  for- 
ward and  the  thigh-bone  backward,  reversing  the  angles 


Fig.  11.  —  Diagram  showing  cuts  of  beef. 


1  and  2  =  loin  (1=  sirloin). 

6  =  prime  ribs. 

10  =  brisket. 

14  =  flank. 

3  =  rump. 

7  =  blade. 

11  =  cross-rib. 

15  =  shoulder. 

4  =  round. 

8  =  chuck. 

12  =  plate. 

16  =  leg  (shin) 

5  =  top  sirloin. 

9  =  neck. 

13  =  navel. 

which,  in  the  living  animal,  they  make  with  the  back-bone, 
and  altering  the  position  of  the  muscles  attached  to  them. 

Description  of  the  cuts  of  beef.  —  Upon  severing  the 
forequarter  from  hindquarter  just  back  of  the  ribs,  we 
recognize  on  the  latter  the  small  end  of  the  loin.  The 
first  few  steaks  cut  here  are  short  in  the  flank  and  have 
little  tenderloin ;  they  are  called  short,  club,  or  Delmonico 
steaks.     Porter-house  cuts  lie  between  these  and  the  junc- 


PLATE  XI. 


Lamb  and  Mutton. 

1  and  2.   Rib  chops,  Frenched.  5  and  6.    Rib  chops. 

3  and  4.    Loin  chops.  7.   Blade  shoulder  chop. 

8.   Round-bone  shoulder  chop. 


ShelJ  ©pan. , " '. " » ^  t      ;  ^^H^  closod. 


Oysters. 
Closed.  Top  shell  removed. 


PLATE   X. 


o,  chuck ;  b,  prime  ribs. 


if 

1 

< 

w         1 

1 

^ 

T^^sSi 

}^i 

•^ 

^ 

^««f'!r*i« 

■  -A»' 

ir 

a,  round  of  beef  with  slices  of  top  round  taken  off.    }>,  flatp'bpEO  siiHoij;!  lt€^k.,^riii5^e^;^Wim- 

mings  shown^  3"'i''->n>     J,        ,•',"',  ^■•^^^'''^^ 


W^/SirS?    "5.0^        f 


MEAT,  FISH,  AND  POULTRY  179 

tion  of  the  hip-bone  with  the  spine,  and  the  sirloin  between 
this  joint  and  the  thigh-bone.  In  the  hollow  of  the  loin 
lie  the  kidneys,  surrounded  by  hard  fat,  the  sueL  A  solid 
chunk  of  flesh  below  the  sirloin  is  known,  queerly  enough, 
as  top  sirloin;  the  round,  of  which  top  sirloin  is  really  part, 
consists  of  the  mass  of  flesh  back  of  the  hip-bone.  A 
streak  of  gristle  running  down  through  this  portion  divides 
it  into  top  and  bottom  round,  properly  inside  and 
outside  round,  but  called  otherwise  because  the  round  is 
always  laid  on  the  block  inner  side  up.  (Plate  IX.)  The 
leg  severed  from  the  round  at  the  lower  end  of  the  thigh- 
bone furnishes  upper  and  lower  shin.  The  rump,  a  wedge- 
shaped  piece  of  coarse  meat  containing  the  lower  vertebrae 
and  the  end  of  the  hip-bone,  comes  out  between  the  sirloin 
and  round. 

The  most  notable  feature  of  the  forequarter  is  the  chest 
with  its  arch  of  ribs,  the  first  six  of  which,  counting  forward 
from  the  loin,  are,  both  from  quality  and  from  position, 
termed  prime  ribs.  Over  the  seven  chuck  ribs  lies  the 
shoulder-blade,  which  appears  at  the  seventh  rib  as  a  streak 
of  yellow  gristle,  and  grows  bonier  and  thicker  from  there 
forward.  Across  the  ribs  lies  the  cross-rib,  a  boneless  piece 
of  flesh,  corresponding  to  the  top  sirloin  in  the  hindquarter. 
The  diaphragm  inside  the  ribs  forms  the  thin,  coarse  strip 
called  skirt  steak.  The  brisket,  adjacent  to  chuck,  neck, 
and  fore  leg,  includes  the  breast-bone  and  part  of  the  four 
forward  ribs. 

The  muscular  wall  covering  and  supporting  the  crea- 
ture's belly  is  sold  in  sections   (Fig.    11)   as  plate,  navel, 


180 


THEORY  AND  PRACTICE  OF  COOKERY 


and  flank.  The  floating  ribs  end  in  the  navel.  The  flank 
includes  the  flank  steak,  a  thin  strip  of  lean  embedded  in 
fat. 

Cuts  of  mutton  and  lamb.  —  Mutton  and  lamb  are 
usually  quartered  like  beef.  The  loin  is  cut  into  chops. 
Hip   chops,    corresponding  to   sirloin   steaks,    are   sold   as 


Fig.  12.  —  Diagram  showing  cuts  of  lamb  and  mutton. 


1  =  loin. 

2  =  leg. 


rib-portion, 
shoulder. 


5,  5  =  breast. 


loin  chops,  but  are  inferior,  containing  bone.  The  neck 
and  shoulder  sell  cheap ;  the  latter  is  cut  for  roasting  with 
the  fore  leg,  and  if  desired,  with  two  or  more  ribs  left  on. 
Leg-of-mutton  is  the  hind  leg  together  with  what  corre- 
sponds to  the  round  in  beef.  A  sheep  between  two  and  three 
years  old  furnishes  the  best  mutton.  The  age  of  mutton 
may  be  told  by  breaking  the  joint  of  the  fore  leg ;  the  bones 


MEAT,  FISH,  AND  POULTRY 


181 


in  a  lamb  are  ridged  ;  the  less  distinct  these  ridges,  the  older 
is  the  animal.  By  what  signs  would  you  know  good  beef? 
Good  mutton?     Hard  mutton-fat  purified  makes  tallow. 

Cuts   of   veal.  —  Of   the   forequarter   cuts   of   veal,   the 
breast   and   shoulder  furnish    stew  meat  or  second-quality 


1    7k"     ' 


^"I'Jl  I  !  !  I  I  !!  I  i  !  'I'l  I>  \\  \\       _— .      / 


Fig.  13.  —  Diagram  showing  cuts  of  veal. 


1  =  loin. 

2  =  leg  (cutlets,  etc.). 

3  =  knuckle. 

4  =  rack. 


5  =  shoulder. 

6  =  neck. 

7,  7  =  breast. 


roasting  pieces,  and  the  ribs  are  sold  together  as  rack  of  vealy 
or  separately  as  chops;  as  in  beef,  the  hindquarter  cuts 
are  choicer.  Roasting  pieces  or  steaks  and  chops  are  cut 
from  both  loin  and  leg,  slices  from  the  leg  being  called 
cutlets.  These  contain  a  section  of  the  round  leg-bone. 
Breast  and  leg,  tough  in  the  full-grown  animal,  are  tender 
in  the  calf. 


182     THEORY  AND  PRACTICE  OF  COOKERY 

How  good  veal  looks.  —  The  best  veal,  that  of  a  calf 
about  two  months  old,  is  pale  pink  or  flesh-colored,  with 
clear  white  fat.     White  lean  veal  is  unfit  to  eat. 

Cuts   of   pork ;    the   appearance    of   good   pork.  —  The 

ribs  and  loin  of  pork  are  sold  for  roasting,  or  as  chops.  Hams 
are  the  hind  legs,  salted  and  smoked ;  hacon,  the  flank  simi- 
larly prepared.     The  thick  layers  of  fat  on  the  back  and 


Fig.  14.  —  Diagram  showing  cuts  of  pork. 

1  =  loin.  3  =  back.  5  =  belly. 

2  =  ham.  4  =  shoulder. 

flank  are  commonly  salted.  The  strips  or  "  leaves "  of 
kidney  fat  are  ^'  tried  out,"  or  rendered,  and  purified,  to 
make  leaf-lard;  fat  from  other  parts  of  the  hog  yields  lard  of 
poorer  quality.  Fat  salt  pork  of  good  quality  is  white,  or 
faintly  tinged  with  pink,  and  has  a  thin  rind.  Fresh  pork 
should  be  pale  red  and  firm,  with  white  fat.  Good  sausages 
are  made  of  chopped  and  seasoned  beef  or  pork,  or  both 
combined,  packed  in  intestines.  As  it  is  easy  to  use  all 
sorts  of  slaughter  house  scraps  in  them,  as  well  as  starch 


MEAT,  FISH,   AND  POULTRY  183 

and  other  adulterants,  it  is  important  to  buy  only  those 
made  by  a  reliable  manufacturer. 

Internal  organs  used  for  food.  —  The  tongue,  liver,  kid- 
neys, heart,  and  some  other  organs  of  the  ox  and  sheep  are 
used  for  food.  Tripe,  the  lining  of  a  beef's  stomach,  is  sold 
boiled.  The  brains,  pancreas,  and  thymus  gland  of  calves 
are  considered  dainties ;  the  latter  two  are  termed  sweet- 
breads. 

Meat  inspection.  —  Meat  should  come  from  healthy 
animals,  should  be  handled  in  cleanly  fashion,  should  not 
be  allowed  to  spoil,  and  should  not  be  kept  from  spoiling 
by  harmful  preservatives.  The  United  States  government 
inspects  all  meat  to  be  sent  out  of  the  state  in  which  it  is 
killed.  Meat  killed  and  marketed  in  the  same  state  is  not 
always  inspected.  Look  for  the  inspector's  stamp  on  meat 
you  buy.  Inspected  meat  may  cost  more,  but  it  is  safer. 
Even  inspection  does  not  make  pork  safe  to  eat,  unless  it  is 
cooked  until  it  is  white  all  through. 

Economy  in  marketing;  the  cheapest  meat  not  always 
the  most  economical.  —  Since  less  than  one-fourth  of  the 
weight  of  a  dressed  beef  consists  of  very  tender  meat,  these 
tender  portions  are  necessarily  expensive.  The  less  tender 
cuts,  being  more  nutritious,  are  more  economical ;  and,  if 
properly  cooked,  are  good  eating,  better,  indeed,  than 
higher-priced  cuts  badly  cooked.  The  value  of  any  cut 
depends  not  alone  upon  the  quality  of  the  edible  portion, 
but  also  upon  the  proportion  this  bears  to  the  refuse  (bone, 
gristle,  etc.).  For  example,  prime  ribs  are  even  more 
expensive  than  they  seem,  because  the  purchaser  pays  for 


184  THEORY  AND  MACTlCE  OF  COOKERY 

so  much  bone.  Again,  a  cheap  piece,  containing  much 
refuse,  may  be  less  economical  than  a  higher-priced  one,  all 
of  which  is  eatable. 

Recently  killed  meat  is  tender.  It  soon  stiffens,  owing 
to  the  clotting  of  certain  proteins  (p.  152).  It  becomes 
tender  again  after  a  time.  Meat  (and  poultry)  which  is  to 
be  stored  or  to  be  shipped  any  distance  must  be  kept  very 
cold.  Sometimes  it  is  frozen.  Cold  storage  is  a  conven- 
ience, but  it  tends  to  injure  the  flavor  of  both  meat  and 
poultry,  and  they  spoil  quickly  when  taken  out. 

The  food  value  of  meat.  —  The  lean  of  meat  consists 
chiefly  of  protein  and  water.  The  more  fat  there  is  with  a 
piece  of  meat,  the  greater  its  fuel  value.  If  the  fat  is  not 
eaten,  this  is  lost.  The  extractives  in  meat  cause  its  odor, 
and  together  with  mineral  salts,  its  taste.  People  like  meat 
because  of  its  flavor  and  stimulating  properties. 

Americans,  however,  tend  to  buy  more  meat  than  they 
need,  and  to  spend  more  for  it  than  they  can  afford. 
Formerly  meat  was  cheap,  because  there  was  plenty  of  land 
on  which  to  keep  cattle.  As  more  and  more  of  this  land  is 
used  for  grain  and  other  crops,  the  price  of  meat  rises. 
There  are  other  foods,  which  may  be  substituted,  that  are 
even  better  for  us  than  meat.  Meat  three  times  a  day  is 
probably  unnecessary  for  any  one,  and  hurtful  except  to 
people  actively  working  or  exercising.      (See  p.  143.) 

Digestion  of  meat.  —  All  kinds  of  meat  are  almost  com- 
pletely digestible,  although  not  all  equally  easy  of  digestion. 
The  lean  of  meat  undergoes  the  first  stage  of  its  digestion 
in  the  stomach.     The  process  is  promoted  by  the  extrac- 


MEAT,  FISH,  AND  POULTRY  185 

tives,  which  excite  the  secretion  of  gastric  juice.  The 
digestion  of  fat  takes  place  mostly  in  the  small  intestine. 
Pork  and  veal  are  harder  to  digest  than  beef  and  mutton. 
Tender  short-fibred  meat  passes  through  the  gastric  stage 
of  digestion  and  leaves  the  stomach  more  rapidly  than 
that  which  is  coarse-grained  and  tough.  Proper  cooking 
may  make  tough  meat  almost  equal  to  tender  in  ease  of 
digestion,  while  careless  cooking  may  dry  and  harden  the 
choicest  cuts. 

Experiment  to  illustrate  the  gastric  digestion  of  meat.  —  Put  a  few  bits 
of  raw  lean  meat  into  a  test-tube,  and  cover  them  with  water ;  add  a  little 
pepsin  and  a  few  drops  of  hydrochloric  acid.  (Pp.  86,  88  and  footnote.) 
At  end  of  one  hour  and  a  half,  and  at  intervals  afterward,  examine  the 
meat,  noting  its  gradual  solution. 

Brief  Reference  List 

For  further  development  of  topics  treated  in  this  section 
see :  — 

Sherman:  Food  products.    Ch.  6. 

Snell  :  Household  chemistry.     (Especially  for  experiments  and  tests.) 

Ward:  Grocer's  encyclopedia.  (Especially  for  colored  illustrations  of 
cuts.    Also  article  on  Gelatin.) 

Wiley  :  Food  and  its  adulteration.     (Especially  for  illustrations  of  cuts.) 

University  of  Illinois  :  Experiment  station  bulletin  158.  Beef. 

U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agriculture  :  Farmers'  bulletin  586.  Mutton. 

Buchanan  :  Household  bacteriology.    P.  296,  Ripening  of  meat. 

Barrows:  Principles  of  cookery.  Pp.  133-139  and  170-180,  Use  of 
left-overs. 

Stiles  :  Nutritional  physiology.  P.  151,  Why  gelatin  is  inferior  as  a  tissue- 
builder. 

Jordan:  Principles  of  human  nutrition.  P.  30,  Gommercial  meat 
extracts. 


186 


THEORY  AND  PRACTICE  OF  COOKERY 


O 


I 


s 
1 

2 

if 

i 

03 

B 

O 

1 
il 

i' 

Lean,  mostly  tender ;   fat 
on  edges;    little  bone. 
Sirloin  steaks :    1,  Hip- 
bone sirloin,  next  to  the 
porter-house,  with  large 
tenderloin,  is  the  best; 
2,  flat-bone  sirloin  sec- 
ond    choice.       Larger 
tenderloin,   round-bone 
sirloin,  poorest. 

1 

1 
o 
o 

P 

1 
1 

In  slices :  a,  one  to  two 
inches    thick :      Del- 
monico,  porter-house, 
and     sirloin     steaks ; 
b,    thicker    slices    for 
roasting. 

Sold    either    whole    or 
in  halves.     In  latter 
case,     aitch-bone     is 
split  in  two. 

<  o 

Loin. 
All  between  first 
rib  and  rear 
end   of   hip- 
bone. 

.a 

Oh'     «^ 

MEAT,  FISH,   AND  POULTRY 


187 


Excellent  for  braising, 
pot-roast,  and  beef  a 
la  mode,  also  for  beef 
juice  and  beef  tea; 
fairly  good  roasted  or 
broiled. 

Pot-roast,  soup,  mince- 
meat. 

a- 

•I 

It 

Solid  piece  of  juicy,  fairly 
tender,  lean,  bordered 
with  fat.  Good  meat 
has  thick  piece  of  fat  be- 
tween top  and  bottom 
round. 

Similar  to  top  round,  but 
tougher,  has  streaks  of 
gristle. 

s 

02 

Similar  in  quality  to  loin, 
but  has  more  bone  and 
no  tenderloin. 

Similar  to  prime  ribs,  but 
has   more   gristle    and 
bone. 

Sliced  or  cut  thick.  Best 
part  of  bottom  round 
sometimes    cut    with 
top  for  dealer's  advan- 
tage. 

Cut  thick. 

1 

o 
oT 

d 

Sold  in  pieces  containing 
'  upper  parts  of  two  or 
more   ribs;    may   be 
boned  and  rolled ;  with 
ribs  left  in  is  called 
''standing  roast." 

1 

O 

Round. 

1.  Top:   inside 
of  thigh. 

2.  Bottom: 
outside  of 
thigh. 

Top  Sirloin. 
Between  sirloin 
and  round. 

S    X 

Blade. 

7th,    8th,    and 
9th  ribs. 

188 


THEORY  AND  PRACTICE  OF  COOKERY 


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MEAT,  FISH,   AND  POULTRY 


189 


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192 


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194  THEORY  AND  PRACTICE  OF  COOKERY 

Section  3.    Poultey 

Of  the  birds  we  use  for  food,  fowls  and  chickens,  tur- 
keys, and  tame  ducks  and  geese  are  classed  together  as 
poultry.  Wild  fowl,  like  wild  animals  used  for  food,  come 
under  the  head  of  game.  Among  game-birds  are  quail, 
partridges,  grouse,  wild  ducks,  and  wild  geese.  Game  is 
now  scarce  and  expensive. 

Food  value  and  digestibility  of  poultry  and  game.  — 
The  flesh  of  ducks  and  geese,  like  pork,  is  so  fat  that  it 
is  not  easily  digested.  Of  what  use  is  fat  in  the  bodies 
of  waterfowl? 

The  light  meat  from  the  breasts  of  poultry  is  tender,  but 
poorer  in  flavor  than  the  less  delicate  meat  from  the  leg 
and  hip-joint,  or  ^'  second  joint,''  a  difference  correspond- 
ing to  that  between  the  loin  of  beef  and  the  shin  and  round. 
The  delicacy  of  the  breast-meat  is  owing  partly  to  the 
shortness  of  its  muscle-fibres.  The  legs  are  tough  because 
fowls  use  them  constantly.  Strong  tendons  run  through 
the  "  drumsticks."  Why  is  the  meat  on  the  wings  of  domes- 
tic fowls  so  much  more  tender  than  that  on  the  legs  ?  Wild 
fowl  have  dark,  rich  meat  on  breast  and  wings.  Can  you 
explain  why? 

Selecting  poultry.  —  In  market  terms,  chicken  not  more 
than  five  months  old  is  "  spring  chicken  " ;  chicken  over  a 
year  old,  fowl. 

Would  you  choose  fowl  or  spring  chicken  for  broiling? 
for  f ricasseeing  ?  What  effect  would  stewing  have  on  the 
flesh  of  a  young  bird?     on  the  tendons  of  an  old  one? 


MEAT,  FISH,   AND   POULTRY  195 

These  tendons  should  be  removed  if  the  fowl  is  to  be  roasted, 
but  need  not  be  if  it  is  to  be  boiled  or  fricasseed.  What  is  the 
reason  ? 

In  a  chicken  or  young  fowl  the  scales  on  the  legs  are  yellow 
and  soft,  and  the  breast-bone  yielding.  How  do  the  bones  of 
young  animals  differ  in  composition  from  those  of  older 
ones?  Older  fowls  have  horny  scales,  a  hard  breast-bone, 
thicker  and  yellower  skin,  and  more  fat.  Pin-feathers, 
usually  an  indication  of  youth,  give  place  to  hairs  as  the 
bird  grows  older.     A  young  cock  is  best  for  roasting. 

A  young  turkey  is  known  by  the  same  points  as  a  young 
fowl.  Good  turkeys  have,  besides,  plump  breasts,  black 
legs,  and  white  flesh.  A  young  cock  turkey  (gobbler)  has 
small  spurs.  As  a  rule,  hen  turkeys  are  best ;  old  gobblers 
are  never  good. 

In  a  young  duck  or  goose  the  windpipe  is  brittle  enough 
to  snap  readily  between  the  thumb  and  finger,  and  the 
feet  are  soft  and  yellow.  Neither  ducks  nor  geese  are  good 
if  more  than  one  year  old. 

How  to  dress  and  clean  poultry.  —  Before  any  kind  of 
poultry  is  cooked,  the  hairs  and  pin-feathers  must  be  re- 
moved, the  entrails  drawn,  and  the  body  cleaned.  Usually 
the  tendons  in  the  leg  are  removed. 

1.  To  remove  hairs,  singe  the  bird  over  a  flame,  holding 
it  by  neck  and  legs.  A  gas  or  an  alcohol  flame  is  best. 
Lacking  these,  use  lighted  paper  on  top  of  the  range.  Cut 
off  the  head.  Pull  out  pin-feathers  with  a  vegetable-knife 
and  your  thumb. 

2.  To  remove  tendons,  bend  the  leg  back  to  stretch  the 


196     THEORY  AND  PRACTICE  OF  COOKERY 

skin  over  the  joint,  and  cut  carefully  through  the  skin. 
Break  the  joint.  Slip  a  skewer  under  one  tendon  at  a  time 
and  pull  them  out.  Break  off  the  foot  with  the  loose 
tendons. 

3.  To  draw  the  bird,  make  a  cut  just  large  enough  to  admit 
your  hand  between  one  leg  and  the  body.  Make  another 
cut  around  the  rump  (the  part  just  below  the  tail).  Slip 
a  finger  in  here  and  free  the  entrails  from  the  body.  Then 
put  your  hand  into  the  other  opening  and  work  it  carefully 
around  between  the  entrails  and  the  body,  till  the  entrails 
can  be  drawn  out  all  together.  Put  two  fingers  down  be- 
tween the  neck  and  the  skin  and  find  the  windpipe  and  the 
crop  (a  little  bag).  Draw  these  out.  The  kidneys  lie  in 
a  hollow  near  the  end  of  the  back-bone.  Make  sure  that 
these  are  removed.  See  also  that  none  of  the  red,  spongy 
lung-substance  clings  to  the  chest  wall.  Turn  down  the 
skin  on  the  neck  and  cut  the  neck  off  close  to  the  body. 
Save  the  neck.  Leave  about  two  inches  of  skin  to  fold 
over.  Cut  off  the  oil-bag  from  the  rump.  Pieces  of  fat 
may  be  saved  to  be  melted  for  basting. 

4.  To  clean,  run  water  through  the  body.  Wipe  it  with 
a  damp  cloth  inside  and  out. 

5.  The  giblets.  —  The  gizzard,  heart,  and  liver,  called 
"  giblets,'^  are  saved  to  use  in  gravy.  The  gizzard  is  large, 
hard,  and  purplish.  The  liver,  soft  and  red,  lies  next  to  it, 
with  the  gall-bladder  attached.  Gall  (bile)  is  very  bitter; 
in  cutting  off  the  gall-bladder  take  great  care  not  to  break 
it.  If  a  drop  of  gall  escapes,  wash  instantly  whatever  part 
of  the  bird  it  touches.     Cut  slowly  through  the  thick  wall 


MEAT,  FISH,  AND  POULTRY  197 

of  the  gizzard,  stopping  as  soon  as  the  inner  sac  conies  to 
view.  This  sac  may  contain  corn  or  whatever  the  bird  has 
fed  on.  Peel  off  the  outer  coat  without  breaking  the  sac, 
and  throw  the  sac  away.     Wash  the  giblets. 

The  organs  of  a  fowl  may  be  used  to  illustrate  a  lesson 
on  digestion.  (See  Chap.  XV.) 

Stuffing  for  Chicken 

Bread-crumbs,  2  c.  Pepper,  1 1. 

Sage  or  poultry  seasoning,  1  t.         Butter,  3  tb. 
Salt,  1  t.  Boiling  water,  J  c. 

Mix  crumbs  and  seasonings.  Melt  the  butter  by  pouring 
the  boiling  water  on  to  it  and  stir  into  the  crumbs. 

Directions  for  Stuffing  and  Roasting  CracKEN 

With  a  spoon  put  stuffing  into  the  neck-opening.  Do 
not  cram  the  cavity  full,  as  the  crumbs  will  swell.  Put  the 
rest  into  the  other  end  of  the  bird.  Draw  the  neck-skin 
down  and  lay  over  upon  the  back.  Cross  wings  on  back 
so  as  to  hold  this  skin  in  place.  With  string  tie  ends  of  legs 
to  tail. 

Place  the  chicken  on  its  back  in  a  roasting-pan.  Rub 
salt  all  over  it.  Roast  in  a  hot  oven  till  brown.  Reduce 
the  heat  and  continue  roasting  till  tender.  Baste  every 
ten  minutes.     Remove  string  before  serving. 

Time.  —  For  a  three  or  four  pound  chicken,  one  to 
one  and  one-half  hours. 

For  basting,  use  melted  chicken  fat  or  melted  butter 
and  hot  water  (three  tablespoonfuls  of  fat  or  butter  to  one 


198     THEORY  AND  PRACTICE  OF  COOKERY 

cup  of  water).     When  this  is  used  up,  baste  with  liquid  in 
pan. 

To  make  giblet  gravy.  —  While  the  chicken  is  roasting 
boil  giblets  and  neck.  Have  about  one  pint  of  water  left 
with  them  when  they  are  done.  Mash  liver.  Chop  heart, 
gizzard,  and  meat  from  neck.  When  the  chicken  is  taken 
from  the  pan,  pour  the  clear  fat  from  pan  into  a  cup  or  bowl 
and  the  settlings  into  the  saucepan  with  the  giblet-water. 
Brown  one-fourth  cupful  flour  in  one-fourth  cupful  of  the 
fat  from  pan.  Add  the  liquid  from  the  pan  about  one-third 
at  a  time  and  boil  till  smooth.  Stir  in  the  chopped  giblets. 
Season  with  salt  and  pepper  and  serve  in  bowl  with  ladle. 

Turkey  is  cleaned  and  roasted  like  chicken.  A  fowl  not 
tender  enough  for  roasting  may  be  braised.     (P.  173.) 

Cutting  up  a  fowl  for  fricassee.  —  Use  a  small,  sharp- 
pointed  knife.  (1)  Cut  off  the  head  and  remove  the  oil- 
bag,  but  do  not  draw  the  fowl.  (2)  Cut  the  skin  between 
one  leg  and  the  body.  Bend  back  the  leg.  Cut  through 
the  flesh,  and  separate  the  joint.  This  leaves  second  joint 
and  drumstick  in  one  piece.  Separate  these  as  you  sepa- 
rated the  leg  from  the  body.  (3)  Make  a  circular  cut 
around  the  wing  close  to  the  joint.  Break  the  wing- 
joint.  Cut  off  the  tip.  If  desired,  divide  the  wing  at  the 
joint  as  the  leg  was  divided.  (4)  Cut  off  and  divide  leg 
and  wing  on  other  side.  (5)  Divide  the  breast  from  the 
back  by  cutting  along  the  ends  of  the  ribs.  Break  joint  at 
collar-bone.  Cut  the  breast  in  two.  (6)  Remove  entrails. 
(7)  Divide  the  back  crosswise,  breaking  the  spine.     The 


MEAT,  FISH,  AND  POULTRY  199 

lower  part  of  the  back  may  be  divided  again.  (8)  Wash 
the  back  thoroughly.  Wipe  the  other  pieces  with  a  damp 
cloth. 

Chicken  Fricassee 

One  fowl. 

Boiling  water  or  white  stock,  1  qt. 

One  small  onion. 

Salt,  2  t. 

Parsley  cut  fine,  2  t. 

A  few  sprigs  of  parsley  for  garnishing. 

Cut  up  the  chicken  as  directed  above. 

Brown  the  onion  in  a  little  tried-out  chicken  fat  or  drip- 
pings, and  put  it  with  the  chicken  meat  and  bones.  Add 
stock  or  water,  and  let  it  simmer  about  an  hour,  or  till 
nearly  evaporated.  Take  out  the  bone,  pour  off  the  liquid, 
and  let  the  meat  and  sediment  brown  delicately,  stirring 
and  turning  the  pieces.  Then  pour  back  the  liquid,  with 
enough  water  or  stock  in  addition  to  make  two  or  three  cup- 
fuls  in  all.  Add  the  salt.  After  simmering  for  another 
hour  the  chicken  should  be  tender.  Arrange  the  pieces 
on  a  hot  platter,  with  the  neck  and  the  tail  in  the  centre, 
the  breast-pieces  and  the  wish-bone  on  top  of  these,  the  sec- 
ond joints  at  one  end  of  the  dish,  the  legs  crossed  at  the 
other,  "and  the  wings  and  side-pieces  on  either  side.  Thicken 
the  gravy  with  flour  wet  with  cold  water,  and  pour  over 
the  chicken  ;  sprinkle  and  garnish  with  parsley.  The  fric- 
assee may  be  served  in  a  border  of  rice. 

Chicken  Stew,  sometimes  called  "  White  Fricassee  of 
Chicken/^  is  prepared  like  chicken  fricassee,  except  that  the 
chicken   is   not   browned.      After    removing   the    chicken, 


200     THEORY  AND  PRACTICE  OF  COOKERY 

reduce  the  liquid  to  one  and  one-half  cupfuls,  add  one  cup- 
ful of  milk,  and  thicken  with  four  tablespoonfuls  of  flour. 
Stewed  chicken,  lacking  the  flavor  of  browned  meat,  is  better 
served  on  slices  of  toast  than  with  the  comparatively  taste- 
less rice. 

Brief  Reference  List 

For  further  development  of  topics  treated  in  this  section 
see :  — 

Sherman  :  Food  products.    Ch.  7. 

U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agriculture  :  Farmers'  bulletin:   182.  Poultry  as  food. 
Ward  :  Grocer's  encyclopedia.     (For  various  kinds  of  poultry  and  game.) 
Farmer:  Boston   cooking-school   cook-book.     (For   cooking   poultry   and 
game.) 

Section  4.    Fish  and  Shell-fish 

The  value  of  fish  as  food  is  likely  to  be  better  appreciated 
as  meat  becomes  scarcer  and  higher  priced.  The  govern- 
ment preserves  the  supply  of  fish  for  the  people  by  collect- 
ing spawn  (fish-eggs)  and  raising  young  fry  to  stock  waters 
in  which  the  supply  would  otherwise  become  exhausted  by 
constant  fishing. 

The  flesh  of  fish  is  in  general  similar  in  character  to  meat, 
yet  it  differs  from  meat  in  some  ways.  The  points  of  un- 
likeness  in  the  flesh  of  the  two  classes  of  animals  correspond 
to  differences  in  the  nature  of  the  animals  themselves. 

Cod,  mackerel,  haddock,  halibut,  bluefish,  weakfish,  shad, 
herring,  and  smelts  are  among  the  more  common  fish  caught 
in  Atlantic  waters.  Among  the  fish  common  on  the  Pacific 
coast  are  baracuda,  sand-dabs,  sea-bass,  and  pompano.     The 


> .)  *  o 


MEAT,  FISH,  AND  POULTRY  201 

immense  tunny-fish  is  here  known  as  tuna.  Spanish  mack- 
erel, flounder,  and  red-snapper  are  found  in  the  Gulf  of 
Mexico.  Flesh  cut  from  the  back  of  red-snappers  is  sold 
by  the  pound  as  red-snapper  throat.  Whitefish,  black  bass, 
pike,  several  kinds  of  perch,  and  salmon  and  brook  trout 
are  fresh  water  fish.     Trout  are  rare  and  expensive. 

Fish  proper  are  distinguished  from  shell-fish  by  being 
vertebrate;  that  is,  they  have  a  back-bone. 

A  STUDY  OF  THE   STRUCTURE   OF  A  FISH 

A.  How  does  a  fish  breathe?  Find  the  gills, — red  fringes  back  of 
the  head.  As  the  water  taken  into  the  fish's  mouth  passes  out  through 
the  gills,  the  air  dissolved  in  it  gives  oxygen  to  the  blood.  B.  What 
covering  has  the  fish?  Are  the  scales  attached  at  their  rear  or  their 
front  ends?  Is  there  a  reason  for  this?  Over  the  scales  hes  a  thin 
skin,  often  containing  coloring  matter.  Mackerel,  butterfish,  and  a 
few  others  have  no  scales.  C.  An  air  bladder  under  the  spine  keeps  the 
fish  afloat. 

How  to  know  a  fresh  fish.  —  In  a  fresh  fish  the  gills  are 
a  bright  red,  the  eyes  bulging  and  bright,  the  flesh  along 
the  back-bone  firm  and  elastic.  If  the  fish  can  be  dented 
by  a  finger,  do  not  buy  it. 

How  to  clean  fish.  —  Scrape  off  any  scales  which  have  not 
been  removed.  Work  from  tail  to  head,  slanting  the  knife 
toward  you  to  prevent  scales  from  flying.  Wash  the  fish 
inside  and  out  with  a  cloth  wet  in  cold  salt  water,  and  dry 
with  a  clean  cloth.  If  the  fish  is  to  be  broiled  or  fried,  cut 
off  the  head  and  the  tail  and  split  it  down  the  back ;  if 
to  be  boiled,  cut  off  the  head  only ;  if  to  be  baked,  leave 
whole. 


202     THEORY  AND  PRACTICE  OF  COOKERY 

Fish  suitable  for  baking  whole  are :  cod,  haddock,  blue- 
fish,  small  salmon,  bass,  shad,  whitefish. 

Stuffing  for  Baked  Fish 

Stale  bread  crumbs,  1  c.  Pepper,  f.g. 

Melted  butter,  1  tb.  Onion  juice,  a  few  drops. 

Salt,  ^  t.  Parsley  cut  fine,  1  tb. 

Mix  the  ingredients  in  the  order  given.  This  recipe 
makes  stuffing  for  a  four-pound  fish. 

Directions  for  Baking  a  Fish  Whole 

Time.  —  Forty-five  to  sixty  minutes. 

Fill  the  cavity  with  stuffing,  allowing  it  room  to  swell 
slightly.  Sew  the  slit  over  and  over  with  strong  thread, 
taking  stitches  deep  enough  not  to  tear  out.  If  the  fish 
is  a  dry  one  (p.  206),  cut  gashes  crosswise,  and  put  in  them 
strips  of  fat  salt  pork  about  one  inch  long,  or  insert  the 
strips  with  a  larding-needle. 

Skewer  and  tie  the  fish  into  the  shape  of  the  letter  S, 
and  set  it  upright,  surrounded  by  bits  of  fat  salt  pork,  on 
a  greased  fish  sheet  on  a  baking-pan.  Bake  until  brown, 
basting  often.  Serve  with  Drawn  Butter  or  Hollandaise 
Sauce. 

If  you  have  no  fish  sheet,  lay  two  strips  of  cloth  across 
the  pan,  and  lift  the  fish,  when  done,  by  these. 

Fish  suitable  for  broiling.  Split.  —  Mackerel,  young 
cod,  bluefish,  whitefish,  shad,  trout,  etc.  Sliced.  —  Chicken 
halibut  and  salmon.  Whole.  —  Smelts,  perch,  and  other 
small  fish. 


MEAT,  FISH,  AND  POULTRY  203 

Directions  for  Broiling  Fish 

Time.  —  For  small  fish,  five  to  ten  minutes ;  for  large 
fish,  fifteen  to  twenty  minutes. 

Use  a  close-barred  double  wire  broiler.  Grease  it  when 
hot  with  salt-pork  rind.  See  that  the  fish  is  wiped  dry ; 
sprinkle  it  with  salt  and  pepper ;  and,  if  not  oily,  rub  it  with 
melted  butter. 

Broil  split  fish  with  the  flesh  side  to  the  heat  until  browned ; 
then  broil  the  other  side  till  the  skin  is  crisp.  Broil  small 
fish  close  to  the  heat,  turning  occasionally.  Turn  slices 
of  fish  often. 

When  cooked,  carefully  loosen  both  sides  of  the  fish 
from  the  broiler,  and  slip  off  on  to  a  hot  platter.  Spread 
with  butter,  salt,  and  pepper,  with  Maitre  d'Hotel  Butter 
(for  recipe,  see  p.  157),  or  garnish  with  parsley  and  slices 
of  lemon,  and  serve  with  Tartar  Sauce. 

Fish  suitable  for  boiling.  —  Thick  pieces  of  salmon  or 
halibut,  shoulder  of  cod,  whole  small  cod,  haddock,  blue- 
fish,  etc. 

Directions  for  Boiling  Fish 

Time.  —  Varies  with  fish  from  thirty  to  forty-five 
minutes. 

To  the  water  in  which  the  fish  is  to  be  boiled,  add  the 
juice  of  half  a  lemon  or  one-fourth  of  a  cupful  of  vinegar. 
Place  the  fish  on  a  fish-rack  or  a  plate,  or  coil  it  in  a  wire 
basket.  If  on  a  plate,  tie  fish  and  plate  in  a  piece  of  clean 
cheese-cloth.  Any  fish  not  boiled  whole  keeps  whiter  if 
wrapped  in  cloth.     When  the  water  boils,  lower  the  fish 


204     THEORY  AND  PRACTICE  OF  COOKERY 

into  it,  and  let  it  simmer  until  the  flesh  separates  from  the 
bones.  When  the  fish  is  nearly  done,  put  in  one  tablespoon- 
ful  of  salt.  Garnish  with  parsley  and  slices  of  lemon,  and 
serve  on  a  platter,  with  Drawn  Butter,  Egg  Sauce,  or  Tar- 
tar Sauce. 

FISH  SAUCES 

Drawn  Butter 

Butter,  I  c.  Water,  IJ  c. 

Flour,  3  tb.  Salt,  ^  t. 

Pepper,  f.g. 

Mix  flour,  salt,  and  pepper  with  one-half  the  butter, 
pour  on  the  water,  and  stir  over  the  fire  until  the  sauce 
boils.  Add  the  rest  of  the  butter  in  bits,  stirring  until 
it  is  absorbed. 

For  Egg  Sauce,  add  to  Drawn  Butter  two  hard-cooked 

eggs  chopped. 

Tartar  Sauce 

Lemon  juice,  1 1.  Worcestershire  sauce,  1  tb. 

Salt,  i  t.  Vinegar,  1  tb. 

Butter,  I  c. 

Heat  together  in  a  bowl  over  hot  water  the  vinegar, 
lemon  juice,  salt,  and  Worcestershire.  Brown  the  butter 
in  a  frying-pan,  and  strain  it  into  the  mixture. 

Ways  of  reheating  fish.  —  1.  Creamed  fish.  Remove 
the  skin  and  bone ;  pick  the  fish  into  flakes  with  a  fork ; 
and  heat  it  in  Drawn  Butter  or  White  Sauce.  2.  Scalloped 
fish.  Mix  flaked  fish  with  White  Sauce  and  minced  parsley, 
and  bake  it,  covered  with  buttered  crumbs,  in  a  baking-dish, 
or  in   clam  shells.     3.    Fish  hash.     Mix  flaked  fish  with 


MEAT,  FISH,  AND  POULTRY 


205 


U.S.  Department  of  Agriculture 

Office  of  Experiment  Stations 

A.C.  True:  Director 


Prepared  by 

C.F.  LANGWORTHY 

Expert  in  Cfiarge  of  Nutrition  Investigations 


COMPOSITION  OF  FOOD  MATERIALS. 


Protein  Fat 

COD 

Lean  Fish 


Cacbohydrates         Ash 


Water 


■     Fuel  Value 
KsSq.  In.  Equals 
1000  Calories 

SALT  COD 


Fuel   value: 
.Water:82.6  W~\ 

325    CALORIES 
PER    POUND 

rotein;15.8 


Fuel   VALUE 

B~j  Water  53 

410    CALORIES 
PER    POUND     . 

Protein  21 
Fat:0.3 
Ashi24.7 


Water 
Fat:0.4 

A^:1.2 
Carbohydrates:  3. 
SMOKED  HERRING 


ater:34.6 
Protein::  36.4 


MACKEREL 

Fat  Fish 


FUEI     VALUE! 


1355    CALORIES 
PER    POUND 


Ash:  13.2 


645    CALORIES 
PER    POUND 


Chart  (3. 


206     THEORY  AND  PRACTICE  OF  COOKERY 

mashed  or  finely  chopped  potato,  and  heat  it  as  you  would 
meat  hash.  The  stuffing  may  be  used  with  the  fish  in 
any  of  these  dishes. 

Why  fish  need  special  care  in  cooking.  —  The  connec- 
tive tissue  of  fish  is  more  easily  softened  than  that  of  meat. 
It  is  this  that  makes  fish  break  so  easily. 

Except  for  fish  so  rich  and  oily  that  some  loss  of  flavor 
and  nutriment  can  be  afforded,  boiling  is  a  wasteful  way 
of  cooking  cut  fish.  Vinegar  or  lemon  juice  in  the  water 
hardens  the  fish,  thus  helping  to  keep  it  whole,  and  saves 
some  of  the  albumin,  by  helping  to  coagulate  it ;  but  any 
fish  is  better  steamed  than  boiled. 

What  other  precautions  do  we  take  to  keep  fish  from 
cooking  to  pieces,  or  from  falling  apart  after  being  cooked  ? 
What  effect  has  cooking  on  connective  tissue  ? 

Food  value  and  digestibility  of  fish :  methods  of  preserv- 
ing it.  —  In  food  value  and  digestibility,  fish  is  much  like 
lean  meat.  It  is  cheaper  per  pound  than  meat,  but  the  waste 
is  large.  As  it  is  deficient  in  extractives,  we  tire  of  it  sooner 
than  of  meat.  It  is  desirable  as  a  means  of  varying  the  diet, 
and  it  is  the  staple  protein  food  in  many  coast  towns  where 
sea-food  is  cheap  and  meat  hard  to  obtain.^ 

Fish  containing  little  fat,  and  that  mostly  in  the  liver, 
are  termed  "  dry  "  ;  their  fiesh  is  usually  white.  In  most 
dark-fleshed  fish,  fat  is  more  abundant,  and  found  through- 
out the  body.  Fish  from  warm  waters  are  as  a  rule  drier 
and  poorer  in  flavor  than  fish  from  cold  water. 

1  There  is  no  truth  in  the  popular  notion  that  fish  supplies  the  brain 
with  phosphorus. 


MEAT,  FISH,  AND  POULTRY  207 

Fish  does  not  keep  as  well  as  meat.  To  be  at  its  best,  it 
should  be  eaten  soon  after  it  is  caught.  Fish  kept  too  long 
is  watery  when  cooked. 

A  temperature  below  32°  F.  is  required  to  keep  fish  in 
good  condition  for  more  than  a  few  days.  Frozen  solid, 
great  quantities  are  now  stored,  sometimes  for  several 
months,  and  are  shipped  long  distances.  Frozen  fish  spoils 
quickly  after  thawing. 

Dried,  salted,  and  smoked  fish  lose  much  water  in  these 
curing  processes,  and  so  are  more  nutritious,  pound  for 
pound,  than  fresh.  (Chart  6.)  Canneries  are  established 
near  fisheries,  and  quantities  of  fish,  especially  of  salmon, 
are  canned.  Fish  should  not  be  left  in  the  can  after  it  has 
been  opened.     (See  action  of  acids  on  metals,  p.  57.) 

A   STUDY   OF  THE    STRUCTURE   OF  AN   OYSTER.    (See  PL  XI.) 

Examine  an  oyster  from  which  the  flat  shell  has  been  removed.  Has 
it  any  bones?  How  is  its  body  protected?  Observe  the  thin  membrane 
{mantle)  covering  the  oyster;  its  fringed  edges  form  the  gills.  Find  on 
either  shell  a  blue  spot  showing  where  the  muscle  is  attached  that  opens 
and  closes  the  shell ;  also  the  dark  spot  on  the  oyster  where  the  liver  is. 

How  the  oyster  lives.  —  Oysters,  clams,  mussels,  and 
scallops  are  salt-water  shell-fish  belonging  to  the  family 
of  mollusks,  or  soft-bodied  animals.  Their  shells,  built 
up  of  mineral  matter  secreted  by  the  mantle,  form  a  sort  of 
outside  skeleton.  The  young  oyster  floats  about,  but  as 
its  shell  grows  thicker  and  heavier,  it  settles  down  on  the 
sand  or  rocks,  the  half  shell,  or  valve,  on  which  it  lies  becom- 
ing rounder  and  deeper  than  the  one  that  covers  it.     The 


208 


THEORY  AND  PRACTICE  OF  COOKERY 


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MEAT,   FISH,  AND  POULTRY 


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210     THEORY  AND  PRACTICE  OF  COOKERY 

oyster  has  neither  head  nor  Hmbs,  but  has  a  mouth  near  the 
hinge-end  of  its  shell,  and  two  strong  muscles,  one  to  open 
the  shell  to  take  in  food  and  water,  the  other  to  close  it,  if 
a  starfish  or  other  enemy  comes  by.  Oysters  grow  crowded 
together,  forming  oyster-beds. 

Like  fish,  oysters  are  cultivated.  Baby-oysters,  called 
' 'seed-oysters,"  are  planted  all  along  the  Atlantic  coast. 
Oysters  are  not  good  for  food  when  spawning.  They  spawn 
in  summer,  but  not  all  at  one  time.  It  is  customary,  how- 
ever, not  to  eat  them  during  warm  weather. 

Great  quantities  of  oysters  are  canned,  especially  for  use 
in  the  West  and  Middle  West. 

Experiment.  —  Boil  a  little  oyster  liquor.  What  forms  on  top? 
What  foodstuff  do  oysters  evidently  contain?  At  what  temperature, 
and  for  about  what  length  of  time,  would  you  cook  them? 

Preparation  of  oysters.  —  Oysters  are  commonly  opened 
by  the  fish-dealer.  To  clean  oysters,  drain  off  the  liquor, 
straining  it  through  a  wire  strainer  if  it  is  to  be  used.  Rinse 
the  oysters  on  a  colander,  using  only  half  a  cupful  of  cold 
water  to  one  quart  of  oysters,  to  avoid  washing  away  the 
flavor.  With  the  fingers  examine  the  gills  to  see  that  no 
bits  of  shell  are  left  clinging  to  them. 

How  to  serve  raw  oysters.  —  Oysters  are  served  raw  with 
lemon  as  a  first  course  at  luncheon  or  dinner.  Horse-radish 
sauce  or  ketchup  may  be  served  with  them.  Arrange  six 
oysters  ^^  on  the  half  shell,"  on  crushed  ice  on  each  plate,  with 
the  small  ends  toward  the  centre.  Place  a  quarter  of  a 
lemon  in  the  middle  of  the  circle. 

Oysters  as  food.  —  Oysters  contain  as  much  water  as 


MEAT,   FISH,  AND  POULTRY  211 

milk  does.  Like  milk,  and  unlike  most  other  animal  foods, 
they  contain,  besides  protein,  fat,  and  mineral  matter,  con- 
siderable carbohydrate.^  Oysters  are  more  or  less  salt 
according  to  the  saltness  of  the  water  they  grow  in.  Their 
fuel  value  is  little  more  than  two-thirds  that  of  milk.  As 
they  commonly  cost  five  times  as  much  as  milk,  they  are  an 
expensive  food.     (See  charts  3  and  6.) 

After  being  dredged  up,  oysters  are  often  floated  in  shallow 
water  for  a  day  or  two  to  free  them  from  dirt  and  slime. 
This  cleansing  should  be  done  in  pure  water  about  as  salt  as 
that  they  came  from.  If  put  into  fresher  water,  they  absorb 
it,  swell  up,  and  lose  much  of  their  salts  and  with  these  their 
flavor.  People  have  contracted  typhoid  fever  by  eating 
oysters  either  grown  or  floated  in  water  contaminated  by 
sewage. 

Oyster  Stew 
Stewing  oysters,  1  p.  Butter,  2  tb. 

Hot  milk,  1  c.  Salt. 

Pepper,  f.  g. 

Drain  and  rinse  the  oysters,  strain  the  liquor,  and  heat 
the  oysters  in  it  till  their  edges  curl,^  remove  the  scum,  and 
turn  oysters  and  liquid  into  the  hot  milk.  Add  butter 
and  seasoning.     Serve  with  oyster  crackers. 

Scalloped  Oysters 

Oysters,  1  pt.,  solid.  Salt,  about  1  t. 

Melted  butter,  \  c.  Pepper,  \  t.  or  more. 

Stale  bread  crumbs,  2  c.  Oyster  liquor,  or  oyster  liquor  and 

milk,  5  or  6  tb. 

^  Glycogen,  in  the  liver,  which  in  the  oyster  is  comparatively  large 
(p.  142). 

2  If  cooked  longer,  they  will  be  leathery. 


212     THEORY  AND  PRACTICE  OF  COOKERY 

Mix  the  crumbs  with  the  salt,  pepper,  and  butter ;  spread 
one-third  of  them  on  the  bottom  of  a  buttered  baking-dish ; 
put  in  half  of  the  oysters,  drained  and  rinsed,  another  layer 
of  crumbs,  and  the  rest  of  the  oysters ;  and  cover  the  top 
with  the  remaining  crumbs.  Pour  over  these  the  Uquid. 
Bake  about  twenty  minutes  in  an  oven  hot  enough  to  brown 
the  crumbs  in  that  time. 

A  grating  of  nutmeg  or  a  sHght  sprinkling  of  mace  may 
follow  each  layer,  if  you  choose. 

Other  shell-fish.  —  Lobsters,  crabs,  and  shrimps  are  crus- 
taceans; that  is,  animals  consisting  of  jointed  sections,  each 
of  which  is  covered  with  a  hard  shell.  Their  flesh  is  similar 
in  composition  to  that  of  other  fish,  but  tough  and  hard  to 
digest.     It  is  liked  because  of  its  unique  and  delicate  flavor. 

Brief  Reference  List 

For  further  development  of  topics  treated  in  this  section 

see:  — 

Sherman:  Food  products.    Ch.  7. 

Ward  :  Grocer's  encyclopedia.     (Articles  on  fish,  fish-culture,  and  under 

separate  headings,  cod,  crabs,  etc.) 
U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agriculture  :  Farmers '  bulletin :  85.  Fish  as  food. 
U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agriculture  :  Bureau  of  Chemistry.    Bulletin  133. 

Preparation  of  cod  and  other  salt  fish  for  the  market.     Illust. 
BiGELOw:  Applied  biology.     P.   358,    Lobsters  and  other  crustaceans; 

p.  405,  Oysters  and  other  mollusks. 
Smith:  Oysters.    National  geographic  magazine,  v.  24,  no.  3,  March, 

1913. 


CHAPTER  VII 
FATS   AND    OILS 

Section  1.    Fatty  Foods 

What  foods  have  we  found  to  contain  fat?  What  uses 
have  we  made  of  fat  in  cooking?  What  are  the  uses  of  fat 
in  the  body?     (Pp.  72,  140,  141.) 

Distinction  between  fats  and  oils.  —  We  know  that  fats 
and  oils  are  ahke  greasy,  and  that  fat,  by  heating,  may 
be  changed  to  oil.  Some  fats  are  soft  and  oily,  others  firm 
and  hard.  The  softer  a  fat  is  the  less  heat  it  takes  to  melt 
it.     An  oil  is  a  fat  that  is  liquid  at  ordinary  temperatures. 

Most  fats  contain  stearin  and  palmitin,  solid  fatty  sub- 
stances, and  olein,  a  liquid.  The  more  stearin  fat  contains 
the  harder  it  is.  Oils  consist  chiefly  of  olein,  in  which  some 
palmitin  and  stearin  are  dissolved. 

Vegetable  fats  and  oils.  —  The  fat  of  most  plants  is  in 
the  form  of  oil.  Cocoa-butter  is  an  exception.  (P.  345.) 
Seeds,  particularly  nuts  and  kernels  of  grains,  are  rich  in  oil, 
stored  up,  as  starch  is,  to  feed  the  seedling.  Olive  oil  is  ex- 
tracted by  pressure  from  the  fruit  of  the  olive  tree.  Olives 
are  about  the  size  of  plums.  Some  varieties,  when  ripe,  are 
purple,  some  green,  others  yellow.  The  best  oil  is  obtained 
from  the  first  pressing  of  fresh,  carefully  picked  fruit ;    a 

213 


214 


THEORY  AND  PRACTICE  OF  COOKERY 


U.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture 
Office  of  Experiment  Stations 
A.  C.  True:  Director 


Prepared  by 
C.  F.  LANGWORTHY 
Expert  in  Cliarge  of  Nutrition  Investigations 


COMPOSITION  OF  FOOD  MATERIALS. 


nnmiii    ^^    inni    ^^ 

Protein  Fat         Carbohydrates  Ash 


Fuel  Value 

3^6  Sq. In. Equals 

1000  Calories 


WALNUT 


Water:  2. 


Protein:16.6        Protein:10.7- 

Carbo- 
hydrat 
Carbo- 
.y.drates:16.1 


Fuel  value:^  PEANUT 

Water:  9.2 


Fuel  value: 

Carbo- 
|MJydrates-22.4j 

3285   CALORIES  _^__.,,..JU^^^*^      Ash:2.0  1875  calories 

per  POUND       Protein:25.8        Fat:38.6  per  pound 

Fuel  value: 


sh:2.2 


PEANUT  BUTTER      ^^Je^^  \'w!r 


Water:2.1 


Fat:  46. 


COCOANUT 

desiccated 

Water:3.5 


Protein:  29,3     Protein:  6.3 


Carbo- 
Carbo-  hydrates-f-3J^ 

-ydrates:17.1 

Ash:5.0^^^^^^^  Ash:  1.3 


Fuel  value: 


57.4 


2825 


CALORIES  PER  POUND 


3125       CALORIES  PER  POUND 


Chart  7. 


FATS  AND  OILS  215 

poorer  grade,  from  a  second  pressing ;  and  after  treating  the 
mass  of  pulp  with  hot  water,  or  with  chemicals,  a  third 
grade,  used  for  soap-making. 

Cottonseed  oil  is  as  nutritious  as  olive  oil,  but  inferior 
in  flavor.  The  cottonseeds  are  first  chopped,  hulled,  rolled, 
and  cooked.  Then  they  are  put  in  bags  and  the  oil  is  pressed 
out.  Oil  for  table  use  is  refined.  The  mass  of  seeds  left, 
called  "  oil-cake,"  makes  good  cattle  food.  Cottonseed 
oil  mixed  with  suet  and  other  fats  forms  a  lard-like  substance 
sold  under  various  trade-names  for  frying  and  shortening. 

Oils  from  other  seeds  and  nuts,  corn,  peanuts,  cocoanuts, 
rape,  sesame,  and  others  are  used  for  food. 

Nuts,  generally  speaking,  are  rich  in  fat  and  contain  con- 
siderable protein  and  ash,  but  not  much  starch.  They  are 
a  concentrated  food  and  should  be  eaten  as  a  part  of  the  diet, 
not  as  an  extra  tid-bit.  Peanut  butter  and  other  nut-pastes 
are  desirable  foods. 

Animal  fats.  —  Butter  and  lard  are  the  animal  fats  most 
commonly  used  for  food.  Butter-fat  seems  to  contain  some- 
thing which  makes  it  more  useful  in  the  body  than  lard  or 
vegetable  oils.  It  is  the  most  palatable  of  raw  fats,  and 
therefore  can  be  taken  into  the  body  in  large  quantities. 
(For  butter,  see  pp.  99-101 ;  for  lard,  p.  182.) 

Butterine  (oleomargarine)  is  a  substitute  for  butter  made 
from  a  mixture  of  animal  and  vegetable  fats  churned  with 
milk.  A  little  genuine  butter  is  usually  added  to  flavor  it. 
Butterine  is  wholesome  and  a  better  article  of  food  than 
most  so-called  '^  cooking-butter,"  but  less  palatable  and 
less  desirable  for  steady  use  than  good  butter. 


216     THEORY  AND  PRACTICE  OF  COOKERY 

Food  value  of  fat.  —  We  have  learned  that  fat  has  a  fuel 
value  more  than  twice  as  great  as  that  of  protein  or  car- 
bohydrate. (See  Carbohydrates,  p.  72  and  Food  require- 
ments, p.  146.)  This  is  why  we  incline  to  eat  more  of  it  in 
cold  weather  than  in  warm,  why  Esquimaux  and  Arctic 
explorers  enjoy  whale-blubber  and  walrus-fat.  But  theoret- 
ically we  could  do  without  it.  The  body  does  not  use  fat 
exclusively  for  fuel,  and  if  no  fat  were  supplied,  it  would 
merely  have  to  burn  more  carbohydrate  and  protein.  Fat 
is  more  expensive  than  carbohydrate.  Yet  everywhere,  even 
in  hot  countries,  it  forms  part  of  the  diet.  There  are  two 
reasons  for  this  besides  its  high  fuel  value.  First,  it  does 
not  require  much  digestion.  (See  What  digestion  is,  p.  366.) 
Second,  fat  is  readily  stored  in  the  body.  (P.  142.)  If  any 
protein  or  carbohydrate  has  to  be  stored,  a  good  deal  of  work 
must  first  be  done  on  it  by  the  body. 

Cooking  as  it  affects  the  digestibility  of  foods  containing 
fat.  —  If  not  properly  cooked,  fat  may  make  more  work 
for  the  body  than  it  saves.  Fat  itself  is  most  readily  digest- 
ible when  finely  divided,  as  in  milk,  or  in  such  form  that 
it  can  be  quickly  divided,  as  in  crisp  bacon.  Instinctively 
we  prefer  to  spread  butter  on  bread,  and  in  general,  to  eat 
fat  in  combination  with  other  food.  But  it  is  not  well  to 
incorporate  it  so  closely  with  other  food  that  particles  of 
this  are  coated  with  grease,  as  in  toast  soaked  with  melted 
butter,  or  in  fried  food  that  has  soaked  up  fat.  In  this  case 
the  fat,  since  it  is  not  affected  at  all  by  saliva  and  but  little 
by  gastric  juice,  tends  to  act  as  a  seal,  and  prevent  these 
juices  from  reaching  the  starches  and  proteins  in  the  food. 


FATS  AND  OILS 


217 


U.S.  Department  of  Agriculture  Prepared  by 

Office  of  Experiment  Stations  C.F.  LANGWORTHY 

A.C.  True:  Director  Expert  in  Ctiarge  of  Nutrition  Investioations 

COMPOSITION  OF  FOOD  MATERIALS. 

^^^  \>-:;i:l:f^  ^^^^^^  lllllllllll  ■■_  Fuel  Value 


Sq. In. Equals 
1000  Calories 


Protein  Fat  Carbohydrates         Ash  Water 


^^  11 


OLIVE  OIL 

r — n 


Water:  18.8 


BACON 

Protein:  9.4  >,  ^Fat:67.4 


4080  CALORIES  PEH    POUND 


BUTTER 

Fat:85.0 


Fuel    value-     Ash:4.4 


3030     CALORIES     PER    POUND 

Water:  13.2        ' 
Protein:  ^J 


Ash:0.3 


LARD 


3510   CALORIES     PER    POUND 

Water:  11.0 

Pat:100, 


Ash:3.0  ^-ProtelJi:  L0 

Fuel,  value; 


3410  CAIORIES    PER    POUND 


Fuel    value- 


4080  CALORFES    PER    POUND 


Chart  8. 


218     THEORY  AND  PRACTICE  OF  COOKERY 

These,  therefore,  run  the  risk  of  remaining  undigested  until 
the  fat  is  removed  from  them  in  the  intestine,  and  may  never 
be  thoroughly  digested  and  absorbed.  With  pastry  the 
case  is  still  worse,  for  in  this  not  only  is  shortening  so  rubbed 
into  the  flour  that  it  may  envelop  starch-granules,  but  so 
little  water  is  added  that  these  cannot  swell  as  they  should. 
If  pastry  is  to  be  made  at  all,  pains  should  be  taken  to  have 
it  light  and  crisp.  Burned  fat  contains  indigestible  and 
irritating  substances. 

Directions  for  cooking  bacon.  —  Have  the  bacon  sHced  as 
thin  as  possible.  Provide  a  jar  or  small  bowl  for  the  fat 
which  will  cook  out  of  the  bacon,  and  a  pan  with  several 
thicknesses  of  brown  paper  laid  on  it  for  draining  the  bacon. 
Heat  the  frying-pan,  and  put  the  bacon  in.  As  the  melted 
fat  accumulates,  pour  it  into  the  jar.  Turn  the  bacon  with 
a  fork.  Remove  as  fast  as  it  is  done  and  drain  on  the  paper 
before  placing  on  hot  platter.  The  bacon  should  be  crisp, 
but  not  scorched.  If  a  great  deal  of  smoke  begins  to  rise 
from  the  pan  during  cooking,  reduce  the  heat. 

Section  2.    Cooking   in   Fat:    Frying  and   Sauteing 

The  difficulty  of  cooking  food  in  fat  without  having  it 
greasy  makes  this  the  least  desirable  method  of  cooking. 
Nevertheless,  certain  kinds  of  food  are  good  fried,  and,  if 
properly  fried,  need  not  be  unwholesome. 

Experiments  with  heated  fat.  —  A.  Take  the  temperature  of  butter 
or  drippings  while  it  is  foaming  and  bubbling  over  the  fire.  Heat  it 
until  it  no  longer  bubbles,  and  take  its  temperature  again.  Is  it  hotter 
or  cooler  than  before?    Does  water  stop  boiling  unless  it  is  allowed  to 


FATS  AND  OILS  219 

cool?     Does  it  grow  hotter  after  it  reaches  the  boiUng-point  ?    Do  you 
think  the  fat  was  boihng  when  it  bubbled? 

Why  we  should  not  speak  of  "boiling"  fat. — Fats, 
generally  speaking,  burn  before  they  boil.  It  is  water  con- 
tained in  the  fat  that  makes  it  bubble  when  heated.  Until 
this  water  has  boiled  away,  the  fat  cannot  be  raised  to  a 
temperature  much  above  212°,  but  after  it  has  all  passed 
off;  as  is  shown  by  the  fat  becoming  still,  the  latter  grows 
rapidly  hotter,  rising  to  300°  or  400°,  some  kinds  of  fat  even 
higher. 

Experiments  (continued).  —  B.  Drop  a  bit  of  bread  into  bubbling-hot 
lard;  after  a  minute  take  it  out.  Continue  to  heat  the  lard  until  it 
smokes  and  is  perfectly  still.  Drop  in  another  bit  of  bread,  let  it  stay  a 
minute,  then  take  it  out.  Break  open  both  pieces.  Which  piece  has 
soaked  up  the  most  grease?  Which  has  browned?  How  does  a  coating 
of  grease  affect  the  digestion  of  food?  How  does  browning  (carameliza- 
tion)  affect  the  digestion  of  starch?  Should  food  be  fried  in  bubbling  or  in 
still  fat?  What  makes  the  fat  bubble  when  the  bread  is  dropped  into 
it?    How  does  moisture  affect  the  temperature  of  hot  fat? 

C.  Heat  butter,  lard  drippings,  and  olive  or  cottonseed  oil  in  separate 
sauce-pans.  Which  burns  first?  Which  can  be  made  hottest  without 
burning?    Which  is  best  for  frying ?     Which  is  least  desirable ? 

Points  about  frying.  —  These  experiments  show  (1)  that 
unless  fat  used  for  frying  is  hot  enough  to  form  a  crust  on 
the  food  cooked  in  it,  it  will  soak  into  the  food ;  (2)  that 
so  long  as  it  bubbles  it  is  not  hot  enough  to  form  a  crust ; 
(3)  that  anything  that  cools  the  fat  tends  to  make  the  food 
greasy ;  (4)  that  the  best  fat  to  fry  in  is  the  one  that  can  be 
made  hottest  without  burning. 

Therefore,  do  not  use  fat  that  burns  easily ;  have  the  fat 
deep  enough  to  cover  the  food,  so  that  it  may  be  crusted 


220     THEORY  AND  PRACTICE  OF  COOKERY 

over  at  once ;  see  that  it  is  smoking  hot  and  still  before 
putting  the  food  in ;  reheat  the  fat  after  each  frying. 

Olive  oil,  which  may  be  heated  to  above  600°,  is  the  best 
fat  for  frying.  Southern  Europeans  use  it  commonly.  In 
this  country  the  cheaper  cottonseed  oil,  alone  or  combined 
with  other  fats,  is  much  used.  Of  the  animal  fats,  a  mix- 
ture of  one-third  beef  suet  and  two-thirds  lard  is  the  best  for 
frying.  Lard  alone,  being  soft,  is  too  easily  absorbed  by  the 
food. 

How  to  prepare  fat  for  frying.  —  Fats  are  ^Hried  out,"  or 
rendered,  to  free  them  from  connective  tissue,  then  clarified 
to  remove  water  and  impurities.  Fat  for  frying  is  now 
commonly  bought  ready  for  use,  but  if  desired,  suet  may  be 
bought  for  this  purpose;  all  scraps  of  fat,  cooked  or  un- 
cooked, and  drippings  from  beef,  veal,  fresh  pork,  and 
chicken  ^  may  be  saved  and  used  also.  Soup  fat  and  drip- 
pings need  only  to  be  clarified ;  suet  and  scraps  must  first 
be  tried  out. 

To  try  out  fat.  —  Cut  the  fat  into  bits,  put  it  into  a  fry- 
ing-pan, or  better,  a  double  boiler,  and  let  it  cook  slowly  for 
several  hours.  When  the  fat  is  melted,  and  nearly  free  from 
water,  strain  it,  pressing  to  obtain  all  the  fat. 

To  clarify  fat.  —  Melt  drippings  or  tried-out  fat,  add  to 

it  a  few  slices  of  raw  potato,  and  heat  slowly  in  the  oven 

until  it  ceases  to  bubble.     The  potato  absorbs  some  of  the 

impurities;   most  of  the  rest  settle  to  the  bottom.     Strain 

^  The  flavor  of  fat  from  mutton,  lamb,  duck,  goose,  and  turkey  prevents 
their  being  used  in  cooking.  They  may  be  saved  for  soap-grease.  The 
fat  from  smoked  meats  may  be  used  for  frying,  if  you  do  not  object  to  its 
taste. 


FATS  AND  OILS  221 

the  fat  through  cheese-cloth,  and  let  it  stand  undisturbed 
till  solid.  If  stirred;  it  absorbs  moisture  from  the  air. 
Since  it  keeps  longer  if  left  unbroken,  it  is  well  to  strain  it 
into  cups  or  marmalade  jars,  so  that  a  portion  may  be  used 
without  disturbing  the  rest. 

Foods  suitable  for  frying  are  those  made  of  cooked 
material  or  those  that  require  little  cooking ;  for  example, 
croquettes  and  oysters.  Most  raw  food,  in  order  that  the 
outside  may  not  become  too  brown  before  the  inside  is 
cooked,  must  be  put  into  fat  not  quite  so  hot  as  it  should 
be  to  prevent  absorption  of  grease.  Exceptions.  —  Fish  and 
oysters,  being  very  watery,  cool  the  fat  rapidly;  make  it 
therefore  as  hot  for  these  as  for  cooked  articles. 

Articles  of  food  to  be  fried  are  usually  covered  with 
egg  and  crumbs,  flour,  or  meal,  to  protect  them  from  absorb- 
ing fat.     Why  is  egg  used  for  this  purpose  ? 

Testing  the  temperature  of  fat  for  frying.  —  When  the 
fat  begins  to  smoke,  drop  into  it  an  inch  cube  from  the  crumb 
of  white  bread.  If  this  becomes  golden  brown  in  forty 
seconds,  the  fat  is  right  for  croquettes  and  other  articles 
made  of  cooked  material,  and  for  fish  and  oysters.  If  it 
takes  sixty  seconds,  it  is  right  for  fritters,  and  most  other 
uncooked  articles. 

Directions  for  frying.  —  Use  a  deep  frying-pan  or  kettle. 
A  wire  frying-basket  to  hold  the  articles  to  be  fried,  hung 
on  a  long-handled  fork,  is  convenient ;  but  they  may  be 
lowered  into  the  fat  and  taken  from  it  with  a  spoon-shaped 
wire  egg-beater.  Put  the  fat  into  a  cold  kettle,  and  bring 
it  slowly  to  the  right  degree  of  heat.     Have  ready  several 


222     THEORY  AND  PRACTICE  OF  COOKERY 

sheets  of  soft  paper  laid  on  a  pan,  also  a  pan  to  hold  under 
the  food  as  it  is  taken  from  the  fat.  Test  the  fat ;  if  right, 
dip  the  basket  or  wire  spoon  into  the  fat  to  heat  and  grease 
it.  If  a  basket  is  used,  lay  three  or  four  articles  in  it,  and 
lower  them  till  the  fat  covers  them.  When  they  are  a 
delicate  golden  brown,  lift  the  basket,  shake  it  a  little,  and 
let  the  food  drain  for  a  moment  before  removing  it  to  the 
paper.  Reheat  the  fat,  testing  again  if  necessary,  and  fry 
another  batch  of  articles.  Three  croquettes  can  be  fried 
at  once  in  a  three-quart  saucepan ;  more  will  cool  the  fat 
below  the  "  soaking-point."  When  all  grease  has  been 
absorbed  by  the  paper,  arrange  the  food  on  a  platter,  and 
garnish  it  with  parsley ;  in  the  case  of  fish  or  oysters,  with 
parsley  and  slices  of  lemon. 

CROQUETTES 

Materials  used.  —  The  usual  croquette  mixture  consists 
of  two  parts  of  chopped  cooked  meat,  or  cooked,  flaked,  well- 
seasoned  fish,  to  one  part  of  thick  white  sauce.  Cheese, 
macaroni,  and  some  kinds  of  vegetables  may  also  be  used 
in  croquettes. 

Shaping  and  crumbing.  —  Put  on  a  board  a  heap  of  fine, 
dried  bread  crumbs.  Break  an  egg  into  a  plate,  add  it 
to  a  tablespoonful  of  water,  and  beat  it  enough  to  mix  the 
white  and  yolk.  With  two  spoons,  or  with  spoon  and 
spatula  or  broad-bladed  knife,  shape  heaping  tablespoonfuls 
of  the  croquette  mixture  into  balls,  roll  them  in  crumbs, 
shape  them  into  cylinders  or  cones,  ^  and  with  the  knife  lift 
1  Cones  are  easily  shaped  with  an  ice-cream  dipper. 


FATS  AND  OILS  223 

them  one  by  one  into  the  egg,  dipping  it  over  them  till  every 
bit  of  the  surface  is  covered ;  roll  them  in  crumbs  again  till 
all  the  egg  is  covered,  and  lay  them  carefully  on  the  board. 

Potato  Croquettes 

Mashed  or  riced  potato,  2  c.  Pepper,  i  t. 

Butter,  2  tb.  Celery  salt,  1 1. 

Salt,  ^  to  f  t.  Onion  juice,  10  drops. 

Yolk  of  1  egg.  Finely-chopped  parsley,  1  t. 

Beat  the  yolk,  mix  it  with  the  potato,  and  add  the  other 
ingredients.  Heat  the  mixture  in  a  saucepan,  stirring ; 
when  it  cleaves  from  the  side  of  the  pan,  turn  it  upon  a  flat 
dish ;  when  cold,  shape  it  into  cylinders  about  three  inches 
long.     Roll  these  in  egg  and  crumbs  and  fry  them. 

Chicken  Croquettes 

Cooked  chicken,  chopped  fine,  2  c. 

Thick  white  sauce,  1  c. 

Onion  juice,  1  t. 

Grated  nutmeg,  f.  g.  (about  three  strokes  on  the  grater). 

Additional  salt  and  pepper  according  to  taste. 

Make  White  Sauce  for  Croquettes  from 

Butter,  2  tb.  Milk  or  thick  cream,  1  c. 

Flour,  i  c.  Salt,  1 1. 

White  pepper,  1 1. 

Add  seasonings  to  the  chicken,  mix  with  the  hot  white 
sauce,  and  pour  upon  a  platter  to  cool.  When  cold,  form 
into  cylinders  or  cones,  roll  in  egg  and  bread  crumbs,  and 
fry  in  deep  fat.  Serve  on  a  folded  napkin,  or  pour  around 
them  a  white  sauce.     Garnish  with  parsley. 


224     THEORY  AND  PRACTICE  OF  COOKERY 

Croquettes  may  be  made  of  any  cooked  meat.  With 
beef  or  lamb  croquettes  omit  nutmeg,  and  serve  with  Tomato 
Sauce  instead  of  White  Sauce. 

Savory  Rice  Croquettes 

Boiled  rice,  2  c.  Salt,  ^  t. 

Eggs,  1,  beaten.  Pepper,  1 1. 

Butter,  2  tb.  Cayenne,  or  paprika,  f.g. 

Minced  parsley,  2  or  3  tb. 

If  the  rice  is  cold,  warm  it  with  two  or  three  tablespoon- 
fuls  of  milk.  Mix  the  ingredients,  and  shape  and  fry  like 
chicken  croquettes. 

Codfish  Cakes  (Fishballs) 

Salt  codfish,  ^  lb. 

Potatoes,  in  inch-thick  pieces,  2  hp.  c. 

Eggs,  1. 

Butter,  I  tb. 

Boil  and  mash  the  potatoes.  While  they  are  cooking, 
cover  the  codfish  with  boiling  water;  when  this  is  cool 
enough  to  allow  your  hands  in  it,  pick  the  fish  into  shreds. 
Drain  off  the  water,  mix  fish,  potatoes,  butter,  and  egg 
together,  and  beat  the  mixture  well.  Fry  it  by  heaping 
tablespoonfuls  in  deep  fat,  or  shape  it  into  balls  or  cyHnders 
and  fry  in  deep  fat. 

Directions  for  Frying  Oysters 

Clean  large  oysters  as  directed  on  p.  210 ;  lay  them  on 
one  end  of  a  soft  cloth,  and  with  the  other  pat  them  dry. 
Take  them  one  at  a  time  by  the  gills ;  cover  them  first  with 


FATS  AND  OILS  225 

seasoned  cracker  crumbs,  then  with  egg,  and  last  with 
crumbs  grated  from  loaf.  Fry  in  fat  hot  enough  to  brown 
white  bread  in  forty  seconds. 

SAUTEING 

Saut^ing,  often  incorrectly  called  "  frying/'  is  cooking  in 
a  small  quantity  of  fat.  It  is  a  slower  method  than  ''  deep 
frying/'  less  healthful,  because  the  food  cannot  be  kept  from 
absorbing  grease,  and  more  wasteful,  on  account  of  the  fat 
taken  up  in  this  way.  But,  as  it  is  sometimes  convenient 
to  saut6  potatoes,  liver,  small  dry  fish,  and  a  few  other  kinds 
of  food,  it  is  important  to  know  how  to  do  it  in  the  best  way. 

Directions  for  sauteing.  —  Have  the  pan  hot  enough  to 
hiss  when  the  fat  is  put  into  it,  and  the  fat  hot  enough  to 
hiss  when  the  food  is  put  in.  Cook  the  food  first  on  one 
side,  then  on  the  other.  Use  very  little  fat,  adding  from 
time  to  time  just  enough  to  keep  the  food  from  burning. 

The  very  worst  way  of  cooking  food  is  to  put  it  into  a 
cold  or  half-warm  pan  with  grease  enough  to  half  cover  it, 
and  to  let  it  sizzle  and  soak  till  it  is  wanted.  Such  food  is 
unfit  to  eat. 

SUGGESTIONS  ABOUT  USING  FAT  IN   COOKING 

1.  Save  all  bits  of  butter  from  the  table  to  use  in  cooking. 

2.  It  is  often  well  to  substitute  a  cheaper  fat,  wholly  or 
in  part,  in  recipes  calling  for  butter.  Good  cake  can  be 
made  with  butterine,  chicken-fat,  or  part  butter  and  part 
lard.  Beef  fat  is  a  good  substitute  for  butter  in  shortening 
bread,  biscuits,  and  gingerbread. 

Q 


226     THEORY  AND  PRACTICE  OF  COOKERY 

3.  Have  articles  to  be  fried  as  dry  as  possible,  and  not 
very  cold.     Why  ? 

4.  Cautions,  —  Always  lower  food  gently  into  hot  fat ; 
if  the  food  is  dropped  in,  the  fat,  splashing  up,  will  burn 
your  hand,  and  may  fall  on  the  stove  and  catch  fire.  If 
this  happens,  or  if  the  fat  in  the  kettle  takes  fire,  throw 
sand  or  ashes  or  flour  on  it.  With  care  about  spattering 
the  fat,  or  spilling  water  into  it,  which  causes  a  sudden 
burst  of  steam,  there  need  be  no  accidents. 

5.  When  the  frying  is  done,  remove  the  fat  from  the  fire 
at  once.     Strain  it  through  double  cheese-cloth. 

6.  When  fat  has  become  dark  from  repeated  using, 
clarify  it  with  potato  or  pour  into  it,  when  cold,  three 
or  four  times  its  bulk  of  boiling  water,  stir  well,  and  let  it 
cool.  Remove  the  cake  of  fat,  and  scrape  off  the  sediment 
that  will  be  found  on  its  under  side.  Fat  too  dark  for 
croquettes  may  be  used  for  fish.  From  overheating,  or 
many  times  reheating,  it  becomes  unfit  for  cooking  purposes. 
When  you  find  it  does  not  brown  the  food  well,  use  it  for 
soap-grease  or  throw  it  away. 

Brief  Reference  List 

For  further  development  of  topics  treated  in  this  section 

see :  — 

Sherman  :  Food  products.    Ch.  9  and  10. 

Olsen  :  Pure  foods.     Ch.  6  and  ch.  7  to  p.  74. 

Wiley  :  Foods  and  their  adulteration.     Ch.  7. 

Ward  :  Grocer's   encyclopedia.     (Articles   on    olives,   olive-oil,   peanuts, 

peanut  oil,  oleomargarine,  etc.) 
U.  S.  Dept.   of  Agriculture:    Farmers'  bulletins:    431.  The  peanut; 

322.  Nuts  and  their  uses  as  food. 


CHAPTER  VIII 

FRUITS  AND  VEGETABLES 

Section  1.    Fruits 

a  study  of  an  apple 

Apples  may  be  said  to  be  to  other  fruits  what  potatoes 
are  to  other  vegetables.  But  what  do  we  know  about 
apples?  For  instance,  what  makes  them  hard?  Grate 
and  squeeze  one  as  you  did  the  potato,  and  you  will  know. 
So  much  juice  must  mean  that  the  apple  is  full  of  water. 
Test  it  for  starch  (p.  61).  Taste  it.  It  tastes  both  sour 
and  sweet.  What  two  substances  must  it  contain?  In 
talking  of  the  pulp  of  the  apple,  as  the  mass  of  juice-filled 
cells  is  called,  we  must  not  forget  that  this  grows  simply  as 
a  covering  for  the  seeds.  Some  fruits  have  stones  enclosing 
their  seeds.  How  many  stone  fruits  can  you  name?  In 
some  others  the  seeds  are  scattered  through  the  pulp.  This 
is  true  of  some  foods  not  commonly  called  fruits ;  for 
example,  the  tomato,  the  squash,  the  cocoa  bean. 

Definition  of  fruit ;  popular  use  of  the  term.  —  In  the 
broad  sense,  all  seed-vessels  are  fruits.  This  definition 
covers  nuts,  grains,  and  many  vegetables ;  but  we  commonly 
class  as  fruits  those  seed-vessels  eaten  with  sugar  or  as  a 

227 


228 


THEORY  AND  PRACTICE  OF  COOKERY 


U.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture 

Office  of  Experiment  Stations 

A.  C.  True:  Director 


Prepared  by 

C.  F.  LANGWORTHY 

Expert  in  Charge  of  Nutrition  investigations 


COMPOSITION  OF  FOOD  MATERIALS. 


iniiim 

Protein  Fat 

APPLE 

EDIBLE  PORTION 


Water:  84 


Carbohydrates 


Ash 


Water 


I    Fuel  Value 
pie  Sq. In. Equals 
I  1000  Calories 


DRIED  FIG 

EDIBLE  PORTION 


Protein:0.4 
Fat:0.5 


Protein:4.3 


Carbohydrates:  14.2        Ash:0.3 


Carbohyclrates:74.2 


Fuel 

VALUE: 


c 


290  CALORIES 
PER  POUND 


Fuel 

VALUE: 


1475  CALORIES 
PER  POUND 


STRAWBERRY 

EDIBLE  PORTION 


BANANA 

EDIBLE  PORTION 


Water:90.4 


Fat:0.6 
Carbohydrates:?. 4 


Water:75.3 


Proteinil.O 
Ash-0  6        Carbohydrates:22.0 


Fuel 

VALUE: 


c 


180  CALORIES 
PER  POUND 


Fuel 

VALUE 


460  CALORIES 
PER  POUND 


Chart  9. 


FRUITS  AND  VEGETABLES  229 

dessert ;  and  as  vegetables,  those  served  with  meat  or  in 
salads.  Fifty  years  ago,  when  it  was  the  custom  to  eat  toma- 
toes with  cream  and  sugar,  they  were  doubtless  considered 
fruit. 

Composition  and  food  value  of  fruits.  —  The  edible  por- 
tion of  most  fresh  fruits  contains  from  80  to  90  %  of  water 
and  considerable  cellulose.  They  have  almost  no  protein 
nor  fat,  and,  when  ripe,  little  or  no  starch.  Ripening  changes 
their  starch  to  sugars  and  gums.  Many  fruits  and  some 
vegetables  contain  '^  pectin  bodies,"  resembling  carbohy- 
drates. Whether  these  have  any  food  value  is  not  known. 
(See  Pectin,  pp.  304-305.)  Sugar  is  the  only  foodstuff  found 
in  any  considerable  quantity  in  fruit.  Apples,  cherries,  pears, 
peaches,  and  oranges  contain,  on  an  average,  about  the  same 
amount  of  sugar  (7  to  14  %) ;  lemons,  cranberries,  and 
currants,  less;  grapes,  and  bananas,  and  dried  fruits, 
more. 

Excepting  bananas,  fresh  fruits  have  little  fuel  value. 
We  eat  them  for  their  delicious  taste,  their  refreshing,  thirst- 
quenching  juices,  and  the  important  mineral  compounds 
they  supply,  including  those  of  calcium,  magnesium,  potas- 
sium, phosphorus,  and  iron.  They  are  base-formers,  and 
so  help  to  prevent  bad  results  from  eating  meat.  (See 
p.  143). 

Bananas  contain  more  carbohydrates  than  other  fruits 
do.  In  ripe  bananas  these  are  mostly  in  the  form  of  sugar 
and  gum,  but  the  bananas  in  our  markets,  like  all  fruits 
sold  far  from  where  they  are  grown,  are  picked  green,  and 
never  ripen  as  perfectly  as  they  would  on  the  tree.     In  this 


230   .  THEORY  AND  PRACTICE  OF  COOKERY 

condition  they  contain  considerable  starch,  and,  therefore, 
need  cooking  to  develop  all  their  food  value  and  flavor. 

Fruits  in  southern  markets.  —  Some  fruits  grown  in  the 
South  and  Southwest  are  rare  in  Northern  markets.  Among 
these  are  fresh  figs.  These  are.  peeled  and  eaten  with  or 
without  cream,  or  are  made  into  jam.  Guavas,  and 
loquats,  a  small  downy  yellow  fruit,  are  eaten  either  raw  or 
cooked.  Logan-berries,  a  California  product,  are  a  cross 
between  raspberries  and  blackberries.  They  are  very  acid, 
but  make  good  jelly. 

Some  pineapples  come  from  Florida,  but  more  are  im- 
ported.    Pineapples  contain  a  digestive  ferment. 

SUGGESTIONS  ABOUT  EATING   FRUIT 

1.  Fruit,  fresh,  canned,  or  dried,  should  be  used  daily. 
It  is  not  fruit,  but  bacteria  in  fruit  not  in  proper  condition 
that    causes    sickness. 

2.  Eat  only  sound,  ripe  fruit  raw.  Fruit  slightly  under- 
ripe or  over-ripe  may  be  made  safe  to  eat  by  cooking. 
Cooking  softens  the  fibre  and  kills   bacteria. 

3.  Sweet  fruits,  such  as  dates,  figs,  or  prunes,  may  be 
eaten  instead  of  sugar  with  cereals.  It  is  better  not  to 
eat  acid  fruit  and  starchy  foods  together,  as  acid  tends  to 
delay  the  action  of  saliva  on  starch. 

4.  Do  not  eat  peach,  plum,  or  any  other  tough  fruit-skins. 
It  is  safer  not  to  eat  grape  seeds.  Chew  raw  huckleberries 
well.  Young  children  and  others  with  whom  fruit  containing 
small  seeds  does  not  agree,  may  take  the  juice  of  such  fruits. 


FRUITS  AND  VEGETABLES  231 

Home-made  fruit-juice^  fresh  or  canned;  makes  better  drinks, 
especially  for  children,  than  the  soda-fountain  supplies. 

HOW  TO  PREPARE  AND  SERVE  FRESH  FRUIT 

Fresh  fruit  must  be  clean.  —  Fruit  and  vegetables  ex- 
posed for  sale  on  the  streets  and  sidewalks  gather  dirt, 
besides  decaying  quicker  than  they  would  if  kept  protected 
and  cool.  The  law  should  require  dealers  to  keep  these 
foods  indoors  and  covered.  In  some  cities  women  have 
been  instrumental  in  having  such  a  law  enforced.  Ordi- 
narily, fruit  bought  in  the  market  must  be  rinsed  or  wiped 
clean.  Rinse  berries  quickly  in  cold  water  and  drain  them 
at  once.  Soaking  hurts  their  flavor  and  softens  them.-^ 
Rinse  grapes  and  other  small  fruits.  Wipe  larger  fruits  with 
a  damp  cloth.  If  you  like  apples  polished,  rub  them  with 
soft  paper.     Wipe  the  down  from  peaches. 

Use  silver  or  wooden  spoons,  silver  knives,  and  earthen 
or  enamelled  cooking  dishes  for  fruit.  What  class  of  sub- 
stances in  fruit  may  form  bad-tasting,  and  perhaps  poison- 
ous, compounds  with  iron,  steel,  or  copper?     (P.  57.) 

Serving  fruit.  —  Fruit,  except   when  fresh  from  tree  or 

vine,  should  be  served  as  cold  as  possible.     Never  leave 

fruit  in  the  dining-room  between  meals ;  keep  it  cool  and 

out  of  the  dust.     Arrange  it  tastefully,  grouping  the  colors 

harmoniously,    if   several   kinds   are   placed    on   one   dish. 

Place  finger  bowls  on  the  table  when  fruit  is  served.     Fruit 

juice  stains  white  napkins. 

1  Strawberries  are  never  so  good  after  washing.  Use  as  little  water  as 
possible  on  them. 


232     THEORY  AND  PRACTICE  OF  COOKERY 

Sugaring  fruits.  —  Cut  and  sugar  sliced  peaches  just 
before  serving,  as  they  discolor  quickly.  Let  sliced  oranges, 
bananas,  and  pineapples  stand  sugared  for  half  an  hour. 
Sugar  currants,  crush  them  slightly,  and  let  them  stand  till 
the  sugar  dissolves.  Serve  berries  unsweetened,  and  pass 
powdered  sugar,  or  sugar  and  cream,  with  them. 

Oranges.  —  For  breakfast,  oranges  are  served  whole  or 
cut  in  halves  across  the  sections.  To  prepare  sliced  oranges, 
peel  them,  pick  off  the  bitter,  indigestible  white  skin,  thrust 
a  fork  into  the  centre  of  the  orange,  and,  with  a  sharp  steel 
knife,  slice  off  the  pulp,  leaving  the  pith  on  the  fork. 
Sprinkle  with  sugar.  Orange-juice  may  be  served  in 
small  glasses.  Cut  oranges  in  halves,  extract  the  juice, 
preferably  with  a  glass  lemon-squeezer,  and  strain. 

Bananas.  —  Bananas  peeled,  scraped,  and  sliced  may  be 
served  mixed  with  sliced  oranges  or  by  themselves  with 
sugar  and  a  little  lemon  juice  or  with  sugar,  a  few  grains  of 
salt,  and  cream. 

Melons,  cantaloupes,  and  grape-fruit.  — These  may  be  a 
first  course  at  breakfast  or  lunch.  Cut  grape-fruit  in  half, 
loosen  the  pulp  from  the  skin  of  the  sections  with  a  knife, 
remove  seeds  and  tough  centre,  and  sprinkle  with  sugar. 
Cut  melons  or  cantaloupes  in  two,  remove  seeds,  and  serve 
very  cold.     Ice  may  be  placed  in  each. 

Pineapple.  —  To  prepare  pineapple  for  the  table,  cut  off 
the  skin  and  dig  out  the  eyes ;  then,  holding  the  pineapple 
by  the  top,  with  a  fork  tear  the  pulp  into  shreds,  and  cut 
or  scrape  the  shreds  off  with  a  knife,  leaving  the  woody 
core  untouched.     Sprinkle  with  sugar. 


FRUITS  AND  VEGETABLES  233 

COOKED   FEUIT 

Cooked  fruit  may  be  served  at  any  meal.  It  is  one  of 
the  best  and  most  wholesome  of  desserts. 

Fruit  loses  some  of  its  sweetness  in  cooking.  All  fruits, 
except  the  sweetest,  require,  when  stewed,  the  addition  of 
sugar.  Figs  and  prunes  are  so  sweet  that  a  little  lemon 
juice  improves  them. 

Directions  for  stewing  fruit.  —  Cut  pears,  apples,  or 
quinces  in  pieces.  Slice  or  shred  pineapples.  Cook  small 
fruits  whole.  Put  into  a  saucepan  half  as  much  water  as 
you  have  fruit.  Add  for  each  pint  of  fruit  one-fourth  to 
one-half  cupful  of  sugar,  according  to  the  acidity  of  the 
fruit.  When  the  sugar  and  water  boil,  put  in  the  fruit. 
If  enough  juice  does  not  flow  to  make  the  syrup  cover  the 
fruit,  add  boiling  water  until  it  does.  When  the  fruit  is 
soft,  but  not  mushy,  taste  it ;  add  more  sugar  if  needed ; 
stir  until  this  dissolves ;  then  take  out  the  fruit.  If  the 
syrup  is  watery,  boil  it  down  before  pouring  it  over  the 
fruit.  Fruit  not  quite  ripe,  or  hard  fruit  such  as  quince, 
should  be  cooked  in  clear  water  till  soft,  and  then  sweetened. 

Apple  Sauce 

Prepare  sour  apples,  as  for  stewing.  Put  them  into  a 
saucepan  with  enough  water  to  keep  them  from  burning. 
Cook  till  the  apples  are  very  soft.  Stir  or  beat  to  make 
the  sauce  smooth.  Add  one  cupful  of  sugar  to  six  or  eight 
apples.  If  the  apples  lack  flavor,  cook  an  inch  of  stick 
cinnamon  or  five  or  six  cloves  with  them. 


234     THEORY  AND  PRACTICE  OF  COOKERY 

Baked  Apples 

Wash  and  core  large,  sound,  tart  apples ;  put  them  into 
an  earthen  or  enamelled  baking-dish.  Put  one  tablespoon- 
ful  of  brown  sugar  into  each  cavity,  and  pour  boiling 
water  into  the  dish,  one-half  cupful  for  each  eight  apples. 
Bake  until  soft,  frequently  dipping  over  the  apples  the 
syrup  that  forms  in  the  pan.  Serve  cold  with  cream  or 
milk.  If  the  apples  are  thick-skinned,  pare  them  after 
coring,  that  they  may  not  be  broken  by  knife  or  corer.  If 
they  lack  flavor,  add  a  little  lemon  juice  and  cinnamon  to 
the  sugar  —  one  teaspoonful  of  lemon  juice  and  one- 
fourth  teaspoonful  of  cinnamon  to  one-fourth  cupful  of 
sugar. 

Apples  may  be  pared  before  baking  and  served  in  the 
dish  in  which  they  were  cooked. 

Pears,  quartered,  are  baked  or  stewed  like  apples. 

Baked  Bananas 

1.  Choose  sound,  ripe  bananas ;  cut  about  three-fourths 
of  an  inch  off  each  end,  and  bake  in  an  earthen  or  enamelled 
baking-dish  for  thirty  minutes.  Slit  open  the  skin  and 
eat  the  banana,  which  should  be  sweet  and  juicy,  with  a 
fork  or  spoon. 

2.  Remove  bananas  from  skins,  lay  in  a  baking-dish, 
sprinkle  with  granulated  sugar,  and  pour  a  little  cold  water 
into  the  dish.  Bake  in  a  hot  oven  until  tender.  Serve  for 
breakfast  or,  with  Lemon  Sauce,  for  dessert.  (For  Lemon 
Sauce,  see  p.  282.) 


FRUITS  AND  VEGETABLES  235 

Cranberry  Jelly 
Cranberries,  1  qt.  Water,  2  c. 

Sugar,  1  lb. 

Pick  over  and  wash  the  cranberries,  cook  them  slowly 
with  the  water  for  about  fifteen  minutes,  and  press  through 
a  strainer.  Return  to  the  fire,  and  add  the  sugar,  stirring 
until  it  is  dissolved.  Boil  without  stirring  five  minutes 
longer,  pour  into  a  mould,  and  let  it  stand  until  firm  enough 
to  turn  out.     Serve  with  poultry,  mutton,  or  game. 

Lemonade 
Lemon  juice,  |  c.  Water,  1  qt. 

Sugar,  1  c. 

One  way.  —  Mix  lemon  juice  and  sugar,  add  the  water, 
and  stir  until  the  sugar  dissolves,  strain,  and  ice. 

The  best  way.  —  Have  the  water  boiling,  pour  it  on  to 
the  lemon  juice  and  sugar,  strain,  and,  when  cold,  ice. 

Rhubarb  Sauce 

The  stalk  of  rhubarb  is  so  like  fruit  in  composition  that  it 
is  used  as  fruit  is. 

Steamed.  —  Cut  off  the  leaves.  Wash  the  stalks,  cut 
into  one-inch  lengths,  and  cover  with  boiling  water.  After 
one  minute  pour  off.  To  each  pint  of  rhubarb  add  one-half 
cupful  of  sugar,  and  cook  it  in  a  double  boiler  till  soft.  Do 
not  stir  it.  The  pieces  of  rhubarb  should  be  unbroken.  A 
little  water  may  be  added  if  a  juicier  sauce  is  liked. 

Baked.  —  Prepare  and  sweeten  the  rhubarb  as  for  steam- 
ing. Cook  it  in  a  deep  dish  in  a  moderate  oven  until  tender 
and  deep-red  in  color. 


236     THEORY  AND  PRACTICE  OF  COOKERY 

Dried  fruits.  —  Prunes  are  a  kind  of  plums  dried.  Raisins 
are  dried  grapes.  California  supplies  us  with  prunes  and 
exports  many  besides.  Of  our  raisins  and  figs,  some  are 
from  California;  some  imported.  Most  of  our  dates  are 
from  Arabia,  but  date-palms  are  beginning  to  be  cultivated 
in  California  and  Arizona.  California  figs  are  cleaner  than 
imported  figs  and  free  from  worms.  California  dried  peaches 
and  apricots  are  sun-dried,  but  elsewhere  they  are  evaporated, 
as  apples  are,  by  artificial  heat  in  vacuum-pans.  Dehy- 
drated fruits  and  vegetables  are  prepared  by  a  secret  process 
superior  to  other  methods  of  drying.  After  soaking,  dried 
fruits  are  cooked  as  fresh  fruits  are.  Dehydrated  fruits 
may  be  cooked  without  soaking. 

Imported  dried  fruits,  unless  fancy  packed,  are  usually 
dirty,  and  should  be  rinsed  with  boiling  water. 

We  might  well  eat  more  raisins,  dates,  and  prunes  than 
we  do.  They  supply  both  fuel  and  mineral  matter  at 
moderate  cost  besides  having  value  as  base-forming  foods. 
(See  acid-forming  and  base-forming  foods,  p.  143,) 

Stewed  Prunes 

Prunes,  1  lb.  Sugar,  2  tb. 

Lemon,  1,  sliced. 

Wash  the  prunes,  and  soak  them  for  several  hours,  or  over- 
night, in  cold  water  enough  to  cover  them.  Add  sugar  and 
lemon,  and  cook  them  thirty  minutes,  or  until  soft.  Or 
omit  the  sugar,  and  cook  by  moderate  heat  one  hour  or 
longer  to  develop  the  natural  sweetness  in  the  fruit. 


FRUITS  AND  VEGETABLES  237 

Brief  Reference  List 

For  further  development  of  topics  treated  in  this  section 
see : — 

Sherman  :  Food  prodiLcts.    Ch.  9. 

BiGELOW :  Applied  biology.    Ch.  8,  Studies  of  seed-plants. 

Snyder:  Human  foods.     Ch.  4. 

Snell:  Household  chemistry.     (Especially  ch.   38,   Foods  of  vegetable 

origin.) 
Ward  :  Grocer's  encyclopedia. 
U.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture:  Farmers'  bulletins:  293.  The  use 

of  fruit  as  food;   175.  Home  manufacture  and  use  of  grape-juice;  198. 

Strawberries;  213.  Raspberries;  and  others. 
U.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture  :  Reprints  from  year  book :   1900. 

No.  218.  The  date-palm  and  its  culture  (good  pictures) ;    1902.  No. 

281.  Grape,  raisin,  and  wine  production  in  the  United  States  (many 

good  pictures) ;  No.  354.  Some  uses  of  the  grapevine  and  its  fruits ; 

1912.    No.  610.  Raisins,  figs,  and  other  dried  fruits ;  and  others. 

Section  2.    Vegetables 

We  eat  as  vegetables  the  fruits,  or  seed-vessels,  of  some 
plants ;  of  others  the  root,  the  leaves,  or  some  other  part. 

Vegetables,  like  fruits,  contain  base-forming  acids  and 
mineral  matter  of  nutritive  value.  What  salts  are  found 
in  potatoes?  Vegetables  valued  chiefly  for  this  mineral 
matter  may  be  eaten  raw ;  to  this  class  belong  lettuce, 
celery,  cucumbers,  and  all  "  salad  plants."  Many  vege- 
tables, however,  require  cooking.  If  we  analyze  one,  we 
shall  see  why. 

STUDY  OF  A  CARROT 

Examine  and  analyze  a  carrot  just  as  you  did  the  potato, 
and  make  a  table  showing  its  structure  and  composition. 


238     THEORY  AND  PRACTICE  OF  COOKERY 

Is  it  a  root  or  a  tuber  ?  ^  Where  is  it  most  woody  ?  In  the 
spring  you  may  be  able  to  get  both  young  and  old  carrots. 
Compare  them.  Which  has  the  thicker  skin?  the  more 
cellulose  ?  The  centres  of  very  old  carrots  may  be  too  hard 
to  eat.  Do  carrots  contain  starch?  Do  you  know  or  can 
you  tell  from  their  structure  and  composition  which  will 
take  longer  to  cook,  a  potato,  or  a  carrot  of  the  same  size  ? 

Carrots  contain  more  water  than  potatoes  do ;  yet  they 
are  not  good  baked.     Why? 

Foodstuffs  in  carrots.  —  Carrots  contain  sugar,  gum,  and 
about  one-fourth  as  much  starch  as  potatoes  do ;  of  the 
mineral  compounds  in  them  the  most  important  are  potash 
salts,  yet  there  are  less  of  these  than  there  are  in  potatoes. 

How  plants  and  animals  make  food  ready  for  man.  — 
Roots  are  the  feeding  organs  of  plants.  They  suck  up 
water  and  food  from  the  earth.  We  have  seen  that  cattle 
turn  grass  into  beef  and  milk  for  our  use ;  grass,  grain,  and 
every  edible  plant  that  grows,  work  the  mineral  matter  of 
the  earth  into  cellulose,  starch,  sugar,  for  animals  or  men. 

Analysis  of  peas.  —  A.  Rub  some  cooked  green  or  dried  peas  through 
a  sieve,  washing  the  pulp  through  with  water.  What  is  left  on  the  sieve? 
B.  Test  for  starch  the  pulp  that  passes  through.  C.  Analyze  beans  in 
the  same  way. 

Vegetables  that  supply  protein :  peas,  beans,  lentils.  — 

We  see  that  peas  and  beans  may  be  considered  starchy 

1  Roots  of  certain  plants  sometimes  bud  and  sprout.  Scoop  out  a 
carrot  or  a  sweet  potato  for  half  its  length ;  hang  up  this  carrot  or  sweet- 
potato  cup  by  a  string ;  and  keep  it  full  of  water.  Sprouts  will  appear, 
but  not  from  regularly  placed  eyes  or  hud-scales,  as  on  potatoes  or  other 
plant-stems. 


FRUITS  AND  VEGETABLES 


239 


U.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture 

Office  of  Experiment  Stations 

A.  C.  True:  Director 


Prepared  by 

C.  F.  UN6W0RTHY 

Expert  in  Charge  of  Nutrition  Investigations 

COMPOSITION  OF  FOOD  MATERIALS. 


nnnn 

Protein 


Fat         Carbohydrates 


Ash 


Water 


[Fuel  Value 
J^eSq.ln. Equals 
1000  Calories 


ONION 


Carbohydrate 
Water:83.0 


Fuel  value: 

225  calories 


Fuel   value: 


230  CALORIES 
PER  POUND 


Protein:!. 6 
Fat:0.5 
Carbohydrates:!  3.5 

sh:1.4 


PARSNIP 

POTATO 

Protein:2.2 


Carbohydrates:! 8.4  ^--Water:78.3 

Fuel   value-.  Protein 

I  Carbohydrates:  3. 


385  CALORIES  PER  POUND 


Water:94.5 


Ash:!.0 


Chart  10. 


240     THEORY  AND  PRACTICE  OF  COOKERY 

vegetables.  But  they  also  contain  considerable  protein,  as 
is  proved  by  their  turning  yellow  if  treated  with  nitric  acid. 
In  China  a  kind  of  cheese  is  made  from  them.  This  fact 
makes  the  name  "  vegetable  casein/^  sometimes  given  to 
one  of  the  proteins  in  peas  and  beans,  seem  appropriate. 
Legumin  is,  however,  a  better  name  for  this  substance. 
Although  there  are  greater  quantities  of  other  proteins  in 
peas  and  beans,  they,  together  with  lentils,  are  classed  as 
legumes.     (See  chart  12,  p.  245.) 

STUDIES  OF   GKOWING  VEGETABLES 

1.  Make  drawings  of  a  pea-plant  or  a  bean-plant  at  different  stages 
of  growth,  noting  how  the  two  leaves  that  first  appear  (cotyledons)  shrivel 
as  the  seedling  grows.     Explain  this  (p.  81). 

2.  A.  Cover  half  an  onion  split  lengthwise,  with  warm  water,  re- 
newing this  several  times  a  day  to  hasten  the  experiment.  What  takes 
place  in  the  centre  of  the  onion,  and  at  the  base  of  the  leaves?  What 
becomes  of  the  leaves  as  the  shoot  grows?  Where  does  the  onion  store 
its  food?     B.  Test  the  onion  for  starch. 

An  onion  is  a  bulb,  that  is,  an  underground  stem  sur- 
rounded by  overlapping  leaves,  thickened  by  stored-up 
food  material. 

Composition  and  food  value  of  vegetables.  —  Vegetables, 
as  a  general  thing,  are  watery  and  fibrous.  The  amount 
of  fat  in  them  is  too  trifling  to  be  of  any  value.  With  the 
exception  of  the  legumes,  they  contain  little  protein.  Only 
a  few  have  much  carbohydrate.  But  all  supply  the  body 
with  those  mineral  compounds  it  requires.  These  are  real 
tissue-building  material,  essential,  though  used  in  small 
quantities  compared  with  other  foodstuffs.  Besides  building 
tissue,  they  form  alkalies  (bases)  in  the  body,  which  neutralize 


FRUITS  AND  VEGETABLES 


241 


(J.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture 
Office  of  Experiment  Stations 
A.  C.  True:  Director 


Prepared  by 

C.  F.  UNGWORTHY 

Expert  in  Charge  of  Nutrition  Investigations 


COMPOSITION  OF  FOOD  MATERIALS. 


Fuel  Value 

/fa  Sq. In. Equals 

1000  Calories 


Protein  Fat         Carbohydrates         Ash  Water  ^^ 

GRAPES  RAISINS 

EDIBLE  PORTION  EDIBLE  PORTION 

Water:  1 4.6-— mHI^  M>.  fTT\  Proiein :  2.6 
Fat:3.3 


Water:77 


1 ,455  CALORIES 
PER  POUND 


Chart  11. 


242     THEORY  AND  PRACTICE  OF  COOKERY 

acid  produced  by  protein  food.  This  is  one  reason  why- 
vegetables  and  meat  go  together  so  well.  A  potato  is 
better  than  rice  with  a  slice  of  beef,  because  it  is  a  better 
base-former.  (See  acid-forming  and  base-forming  foods, 
p.  143.)  Potato  is  rich  in  potassium,  spinach  is  rich  in  iron, 
parsnips  are  rich  in  phosphorus,  other  vegetables  in  calcium, 
and  so  on.  But  so  little  is  known  as  yet  as  to  the  particular 
vegetables  from  which  the  body  best  obtains  its  supply  of 
each  element  that  it  is  best  to  provide  the  table  with  as 
great  a  variety  as  possible.  Plant  protein  is  less  useful 
in  the  body  than  animal  protein.  More  of  it  goes  to  waste, 
so  that  a  given  quantity  of  albumin  from  peas  will  not 
build  as  much  tissue  as  the  same  quantity  of  egg-albumin. 

Digestibility  of  vegetables.  —  The  presence  of  cellulose 
in  vegetables  is  thought  to  interfere  with  the  digestion  of 
the  protein.  Only  a  little  of  the  cellulose  eaten  is 
digested  and  that  slowly.  So  the  cell  walls  may  keep  the 
digestive  juices  from  reaching  the  foodstuffs  enclosed  in 
them.  The  more  the  cell  walls  are  broken  down,  the  more 
completely  the  vegetable  is  digested.  The  mineral  matter 
in  vegetables  needs  no  digestion. 

Cellulose  adds  bulk  to  the  food  and  helps  to  keep  the 
mass  of  digestible  food  loose.  It  also  stimulates  the 
movements  of  stomach  and  intestine. 

Select  vegetables  with  regard  to  the  rest  of  the  meal.  — 
If  you  were  to  have  both  meat  and  fish  for  dinner,  would 
you  serve  tomato  or  split-pea  soup?  What  vegetables  are 
suitable  with  roast  beef  ?  Which  are  suitable  for  a  meal  at 
which  little  or  no  meat  is  served  ? 


FRUITS  AND  VEGETABLES  243 

Selecting  vegetables  in  the  market.  —  Choose  vegetables 
that  are  in  season.  Those  forced  in  hot-beds  or  brought 
from  a  distance  are  seldom  equal  to  native  produce,  garden 
grown,  —  besides  being  too  expensive  for  most  purses. 
Know  what  each  is  worth  when  plentiful,  and  you  will  not 
be  tempted  to  pay  four  or  five  times  that  sum  for  it  out  of 
season. 

Choose  medium-sized  or  small  vegetables.  Large  vege- 
tables are  usually  old  and  woody ;  they  require  more  fuel 
to  cook  them  than  younger  ones  do,  and  are  less  nutritious. 
A  measure  holds  a  greater  weight  of  small  vegetables  than 
of  large  ones  —  one  reason  why  they  ought  to  be  sold  by  the 
pound.  Large  squashes  and  cucumbers  are  seedy ;  corn 
with  large  kernels  is  tough. 

The  signs  of  freshness  and  good  quality  in  particular 
vegetables  are  given  in  the  table  on  pp.  248-251.  Stale  or 
wilted  vegetables  are  never  economical,  and  are  likely  to 
be  unwholesome. 

If  you  get  your  vegetables  from  the  garden,  gather  them 
while  the  dew  is  on  them. 

Care  of  vegetables.  —  Keep  winter  vegetables,  except 
squashes,  in  a  cool,  dark,  dry  place,  piled  up  to  exclude  air. 
Squashes  keep  better  spread  out  in  a  rather  warm,  dry 
place.  What  grows  on  food  in  damp  places?  Keep  green 
vegetables  in  the  refrigerator  or  other  cold  place  till  used. 

Preparation  of  vegetables.  —  1.  Fresh.  Wash  all  fresh 
vegetables.  Even  if  they  look  clean,  they  may  have  been 
watered  with  impure  water,  sprayed  with  insect  poison,  or 
have  insect  eggs  on  them.     Soak  in  cold  water  vegetables 


244     THEORY  AND  PRACTICE  OF  COOKERY 

not  fresh  from  the  garden.  How  does  water  affect  wilted 
flowers?  In  the  same  way  it  makes  vegetables  firm  and 
crisp. 

2.  Dried.  Dried  peas  and  beans  must  be  soaked  to  restore 
the  water  lost  by  evaporation.  Weigh  a  pint  of  beans 
before  and  after  soaking.     What  do  they  gain  in  weight? 

3.  Canned.  As  soon  as  the  can  is  opened,  turn  out  all  the 
contents.  Let  all  canned  food  stand  awhile  to  regain  the 
oxygen  lost  by  canning.  Heat,  season,  and  serve  like  fresh 
vegetables. 

HOW  TO   COOK  VEGETABLES 

Since  most  vegetables  are  eaten  largely  for  the  sake  of  the 
salts  dissolved  in  their  juices,  it  is  a  great  mistake  to  think 
only  about  getting  them  soft,  and  not  about  saving  these 
juices.  Vegetables  cooked  in  water  lose  a  considerable 
quantity,  not  of  salts  alone,  but  of  other  foodstuffs,  especially 
starch  and  sugar.  It  is  better,  therefore,  to  steam  vegetables 
than  to  boil  them,  and  to  bake  such  as  are  tender  enough  to 
be  good  baked.  Tasteless,  dull-colored  peas  have  lost  food 
value  as  well  as  flavor  and  color.  Vegetables  when  cooked 
right  look  and  taste  good.  The  directions  for  cooking  vege- 
tables given  in  the  table  on  pp.  248-251  are  based  upon  the 
following  general  rules :  — 

General  Rules  for  Cooking  Vegetables 

1.  Cook  vegetables  whole  when  practicable.  When  not 
practicable,  cut  them  into  as  large  pieces  as  are  convenient. 
If  the  cooking  water  is  to  be  served  with  the  vegetable. 


FRUITS  AND  VEGETABLES 


245 


U.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture 
Office  of  Experiment  Stations 
A.  C.  True:  Director 


Prepared  by 

C.  F.  LANGWORTHY 

Expert  In  Charae  of  Nutrition  Investigations 


COMPOSITION  OF  FOOD  MATERIALS. 


^1      ^^ 

Fat         Carbofiydrates  Ash 


Protein 

SHELLED  BEAN,  FRESH. 

Water:58.9 
>hyclrates:29.1 


Water 


[J  Fuel  Value 
/fsSq. In. Equals 
1000  Calories 


NAVY  BEAN,  DRY. 

ater;12.6 

Protein:  22.5 

Fat:1.8 


Fuel  value: 


sh:2.0  Carbohydrates:59.6     .i^^_Ash:3.5 

Fuel  value: 


740  CALORfES  per  POUND  1 600  CALORIES  PER  POUND 

STRING  BEAN,  GREEN. 

.Ash:0.8 
■Fat:0.3 


Carbohydrates;  7.4 


Water:89.2 


Protein:2.3 


Water:75.4 


Fuel  value: 

195  calories  per  pound 
CORN,    GREEN. 

EDIBLE  PORTION 

Protein:3.1 


Carbohydrates:  19.7 
'Ash:  0.7 


Fuel 
value 


500  CALORIES 
PER  POUND 


.Fat:1.1 


Chart  12. 


246     THEORY  AND  PRACTICE  OF  COOKERY 

the    pieces    may    be    smaller    than    would    otherwise    be 
desirable. 

2.  Use  only  as  much  water  as  is  necessary  to  cover  the 
vegetable.  For  small  or  cut-up  vegetables  that  can  be 
stirred,  use  just  enough  to  keep  them  from  burning,  adding 
more  as  this  cooks  away. 

3.  Use  the  cooking  water,  if  palatable,  in  sauces,  soup- 
stock,  cream-of-vegetable  soups,  etc.  It  contains  nutritive 
matter  dissolved  from  the  vegetables. 

4.  For  vegetables  cooked  whole  or  in  large  pieces,  keep 
the  water  boiling  that  they  may  cook  in  the  shortest  pos- 
sible time.  Peas,  beans,  and  any  vegetables  served  in  the 
cooking  water  are  better  simmered. 

5.  Green  vegetables  keep  their  color  better  if  cooked 
uncovered.  The  reason  for  this  is  not  known.  Cook 
onions  and  cabbage  uncovered  ;  their  odor  is  less  noticeable 
when  allowed  to  pass  off  continually  than  when  escaping 
occasionally  in  bursts  of  steam. 

6.  The  time  required  to  cook  any  given  vegetable  depends 
upon  its  size,  age,  and  freshness.  Old  beets  may  be  so  woody 
that  they  cannot  be  cooked  tender.  Dried  or  wilted  vege- 
tables  cook  more   quickly   if  first   soaked  in   cold  water. 

Seasoning  vegetables.  —  Use  two  teaspoonfuls  of  salt  to 
one  quart  of  water  in  which  large  vegetables  are  to  be  boiled. 
To  one  pint  of  small,  cooked  vegetables,  —  beans,  peas, 
onions,  etc.,  —  or  to  one  pint  of  mashed  or  cubed  turnips, 
potatoes,  etc.,  use  two  tablespoonfuls  of  butter,  one-half 
teaspoonful  of  salt,  and  one-eighth  teaspoonful  of  white 
pepper. 


FRUITS  AND  VEGETABLES  247 

Scalloped  vegetables.  —  Many  kinds  of  cooked  vege- 
tables may  be  scalloped ;  potatoes,  onions,  cabbage,  and 
cauliflower  are  excellent  so  prepared. 

For  scalloping,  cut  potatoes  into  cubes,  quarter  or  tear 
apart  onions,  separate  the  flowerets  of  cauliflower.  Cab- 
bage leaves,  if  not  separated  before  cooking,  must  be  pulled 
apart.  Season  the  vegetable  as  directed  above,  put  it  into 
a  baking-dish,  pour  over  it  thin  White  Sauce,  allowing  one 
cupful  and  a  half  of  sauce  to  each  pint  of  vegetables.  Cover 
with  buttered  crumbs,  and  bake  till  the  crumbs  are  brown. 

Ingredients  for  Thin  White  Sauce 

Butter,  2  tb.  Milk,  1  c. 

Flour,  1^  tb.  Salt,  1 1.,  or  more. 

Pepper,  1 1. 

Vegetables  served  raw.  —  Celery,  Use  only  the  inner 
stalks.  Wash  these,  scraping  them  if  not  perfectly  white, 
cut  off  all  but  a  little  of  the  tops,  and  soak  in  cold  water  till 
crisp.  Serve  them  laid  in  a  glass  dish.  Cucumbers.  The 
seeds  and  coarse  fibres  of  cucumbers  make  them  one  of  the 
most  indigestible  of  foods.  Soaking  in  salt  water  wilts 
them,  increasing  their  indigestibility.  Pare  them,  cut 
thick  slices  from  the  ends  to  remove  medicinal  salts,  and 
slice  thin.  Radishes.  Wash  and  cut  off  the  tops,  make 
cuts  across  the  tops  of  the  roots  through  the  skin,  and  turn 
this  back  in  points.  Tomatoes.  Peel  and  slice  in  half-inch 
slices.  (See  Preparation  of  Tomatoes  in  table,  p.  251.) 
Serve  very  cold. 


248 


THEORY  AND  PRACTICE  OF  COOKERY 


QQ 

K 
■< 

Keep    the    rest 
of  the  water 
to      use      in 
making 
Cream-of- 
Asparagus 
Soup. 

Cooking          in 
salted     water 
wrinkles  and 
hardens  corn. 

> 

Drain,  and  butter. 
Serve  on  strips  of 
toast     moistened 
with     the     cook- 
ing    water     and 
buttered. 

Serve            without 
draining ;        sea- 
son   with    butter 
and  pepper. 

Remove  husks  and 
serve  ears  whole, 
in  a  napkin.     Or 
shave  off  the  top 
of     the     kernels, 
scrape     out     the 
pulp      with      the 
back  of  a  knife, 
season  with  but- 
ter,  pepper,   and 
salt,    and    reheat 
with  a  little  milk. 

I'o.a 

S^ 

g 

O 
1 

Stand  the  asparagus  in 
a    deep    kettle,    and 
pour  in  boiling  water 
to  cover  all  but  the 
tips.         Let    it    boil 
tightly    covered    till 
the  stalks  are  tender. 
The  steam  cooks  the 
heads.       Salt     when 
nearly  tender.       (See 
Plate  XIII.) 

Cook      uncovered      in 
barely  enough  boiling 
water  to  cover  them. 
Let    this    boil    down 
toward  the  last.    Salt 
when  nearly  done. 

Cook  in  boiling  water 
until,  when  a  kernel 
is   pressed,    no   juice 
flows. 

K 

Z 

li 

Cut   stalks   off   as   far 
down    as    they    are 
brittle.       Untie     the 
bunches,  wash  stalks, 
and    retie    them    in 
bunches      right      to 
serve  to  one  person. 
Tie    these    into    one 
bunch     again,      and 
stand  it  in  cold  water 
till  put  on  to  cook. 

1 

•d 

1 

Take  off  outer  husks; 
remove  silk  ;    fold  in- 
ner husks  back  over 
the  ear. 

0 
iz; 

6 

Stalks  should  be  green ; 

the  ends  should  show 

that  they  have  been 

recently  cut. 
Keep  standing  in  cold 

water. 

a  i 

hi 

Silk  should  be  brown. 
Tear  husk  open,  and 
see  that  ear  is  filled 
with     well-developed 
kernels.     Try  a  ker- 
nel with  your  nail,  — 
sweet      milky      juice 
should  flow.  Remove 
outer  husks  as  soon 
as  it  comes  from  mar- 
ket.     Cook  as  soon 
as  possible.     Corn  is 
injured  by  keeping. 

1 

< 

PQ 

1 

FRUITS  AND  VEGETABLES 


249 


Tops  of  sum- 
mer beets 
may  be 
cooked  with 
roots,  and 
served  sepa- 
rately as 
"greens." 

Avoid  trying 
beets  till  you 
think  they 
are  really 
done. 

Serve           without 
draining ;        sea- 
son   with    butter 
and  pepper. 

Rub   off   the   skins 
with  a  dry  cloth. 
Slice  large  beets, 
quarter         small 
ones.           Season 
with  butter,  pep- 
per, and  salt. 

Drain,    and   season 
with  butter,  salt, 
and    pepper,    or 
mix    with    white 
sauce. 

For 
young 
beans, 

Ihr. 

For  old 

ones, 

2  to  3 

hr. 

For 
young 
beets, 
about 

1  hr. 

For  old 

beets, 

4  or  5 

hr. 

n 

Cook  in  barely  enough 
boiling  water  to  cover 
them,  letting  this  boil 
down  when  beans  are 
nearly  cooked.     Salt 
when  nearly  done. 

Cook  in  boiling  water 
till  tender.     Salt  half 
an  hour  before  taking 
from  fire. 

Cook  inner  leaves,  un- 
covered,    in     boiling 
salted  water  till  ten- 
der, but  not  sodden. 

Wash,     pull     off     the 
strings,  and  snap  or 
cut    the    pods    into 
inch  pieces. 

Wash,  taking  care  not 
to    break    the    skin. 
Cut    tops    off    about 
two  inches  above  the 
root.     If    cut    short, 
the    beet     will     lose 
color  and  sweetness. 

Remove    outer    leaves. 
Cut    out    stalk,    and 
separate  inner  leaves, 
removing  any  insects 
found. 

Break  a  pod  ;  it  should 
be  brittle.        Strings 
should    be    delicate, 
and  beans  very  small. 

Choose  those  with  dirty 
roots  and  fresh,  green 
leaves.     If  roots  are 
clean,      beets      have 
probably  wilted  and 
been     freshened     by 
soaking. 

Choose  a  hard,  heavy 
one,  with  crisp  white 
leaves,  and  stalk  cut 
close  to  the  head. 

Keep  in  cool,  dark 
place. 

o  5 

r 

O 

o 

250 


THEORY  AND  PRACTICE  OF  COOKERY 


m 

i 

Peas  and  carrot 
cubes    are    a 
good   garnish 
for  meat. 

Save    root    for 
soup      stock, 
water          for 
Cream-of- 
Celery   Soup. 
Serve      inner 
stalks  raw. 

Should  the  peas 
lack       sweet- 
ness, add  1  to 
1    t.  of  sugar 
to  each  half- 
peck  of   peas 
while  cooling. 

Serve  in  thin  white 
sauce,     or     with 
green  peas. 

Serve  in  thin  white 
sauce. 

11^ 

III 

Serve      without 
draining,     season 
with   butter   and 
pepper. 

H 

^ 

30  min. 
to  1  hr. 

20  to  30 
min. 

5    . 

i 

1 

Cook  in  boiling  water. 

Cook  in  a  small  quan- 
tity of  boiling  water. 

a  0) 

II 

§3-2  a 

ill 

CO 

Cook  in  barely  enough 
water  to  cover,  add- 
ing  salt    15   minutes 
before     taking    from 
fire.     Let  water  boil 
down  when  peas  are 
nearly  cooked. 

P3 
g 

iz;   0 
o  z 

Wash  and  scrape  ;  drop 
into  cold  water. 

Wash  and  scrape ;  cut 
into  half-inch  cubes. 

Cut  off  root ;  wash  and 
scrape    outer   stalks  ; 
cut    them    into    one- 
inch  pieces. 

1 

OS 

1 

CO    H 

.3 

See     that     leaves     are 
green  and  fresh. 

Choose      the      smaller 
ones. 

1 

u 

o  a 

See  that  pods  are  green 
and       brittle,      peas 
green.       Young  peas 
are  small.       Cook  as 
soon      as      possible. 
Peas  are  injured  by 
keeping. 

n 

i 

Carrots. 
Young 

(summer). 

Old 

(winter). 

i 

o 

i 

a, 

FRUITS  AND  VEGETABLES 


251 


Rather  old  spin- 
ach   may    be 
better  cooked 
in  water  and 
drained. 

If  very  watery, 
press          out 
part    of    the 
juice           by 
squeezing  the 
pieces          of 
squash       be- 
tween       the 
colander  and 
a  plate. 

Pink    tomatoes 
are      usually 
less  acid  than 
red  ones. 

IS. 

3   ft 
Xi   g,^ 

111 
||1 

Mash,    and    season 
with  butter,  salt, 
and  pepper. 

Scoop      out      inner 
part.                Rub 
through     a     col- 
ander ;         season 
with  butter,  pep- 
per, and  salt. 

Add  for  each  pint 
of  tomatoes  1  tb. 
butter,   ^  t.  salt, 
f.g.     of      pepper, 
and  1  or  2  t.  of 
sugar.                To 
thicken,    stir    in 
2  tb.  of  pounded 
and  sifted  cracker 
crumbs ;    or  omit 
crumbs  and  serve 
on  buttered  toast. 

l«.s 

About 
30  min. 

About 
40  min. 

hi 

Cook  in  its  own  juices, 
heating   it   gradually 
till  these   are   drawn 
out. 

Cook  in  a  steamer  or  a 
strainer  placed   over 
boiling  water. 

Steam      like      summer 
squash. 

a 

1 

0) 

a 
a 

Cut    off    roots,    stems, 
and  poor  leaves  and 
wash  by  lifting  from 
one  pan  of  cold  water 
to  another,  till  water 
is  free  from  sand. 

Wash,   cut  into  pieces, 
and  pare. 

Break  into  pieces  with 
hatchet ;      take     out 
shreds  and  seeds. 

Let  them  stand  covered 
with     boiling     water 
for    one    minute    to 
loosen  the  skins ;  peel 
and  cut  into  pieces. 

Choose  that  with  leaves 
fresh    and    dirty.     If 
clean,       they      have 
wilted       and       been 
soaked      to      revive 
them. 

Good  ones  are  light 
yellow,  the  shell  ten- 
der enough  to  be  bro- 
ken with  the  finger- 
nail. 

Choose  sound  ones  with 
no  soft  spots.  If  you 
buy  a  quantity,  keep 
them  spread  out  in  a 
dry  place. 

Best     ones     are     firm, 
smooth,    and    evenly 
red,  with  no  decayed, 
bruised,      or      green 
spots. 

1 

Squash. 
Crookneck 
or       Sum- 
mer. 

Hubbard 

or 

Winter. 

i 
1 

252     THEORY  AND  PRACTICE  OF  COOKERY 

Suggestions  about  Cooking  and  Serving  Vegetables 

1.  Strong-flavored  vegetables  may  have  to  be  cooked  in 
a  generous  supply  of  water  to  make  them  palatable.  As 
this  wastes  them,  it  is  better  to  buy  mild-flavored  ones. 
The  less  well-supplied  the  table  is  with  vegetables,  the 
more  important  is  it  that  they  should  be  cooked  so  as  to 
save  all  the  nutrients. 

2.  Avoid  piercing  vegetables  to  see  if  they  are  cooked. 
A  knitting-needle  breaks  them  less  than  a  fork. 

3.  As  one  object  in  using  vegetables  is  to  give  variety  to 
our  diet,  take  pains  to  vary  the  vegetables  served  from  day 
to  day ;  if  you  can  get  but  few  kinds,  vary  the  ways  of 
cooking  these. 

4.  Take  particular  pains  to  make  winter  vegetables 
attractive  to  sight  and  taste. 

5.  It  is  a  mistake  to  serve  peas  or  other  delicately  flavored 
vegetables  with  white  sauce.  Butter  is  best,  except  for 
onions,  turnips,  cabbage,  and  cauliflower.  Cream  is  deli- 
cious with  many  vegetables,  but  is  too  expensive  for  most 
people.  Some  people  cook  a  piece  of  bacon  with  peas  or 
string  beans.  But  this  method  destroys  the  natural  flavor 
of  the  vegetable. 

6.  Tomato,  or  a  vegetable  dressed  with  acid  —  pickled 
beets  or  cole-slaw,  —  is  appetizing  with  fish.  With  deli- 
cately flavored  meat,  such  as  chicken  or  veal,  do  not  serve 
a  strong  vegetable  like  cabbage.  Custom  prescribes  peas 
with  lamb,  apple  sauce  with  pork  and  goose,  cranberry 
sauce  with  turkey. 


FRUITS  AND  VEGETABLES  253 

Section  '3.    Cream-of- Vegetable  Soups  (Purees) 

A  cream-of-vegetable  soup  is  a  white  sauce  to  which  has 
been  added  the  juice  or  pulp  of  some  vegetable.  A  soup 
made  quite  thick  with  pulp  is  sometimes  called  a  puree. 
Vegetables  too  old  or  too  tough  to  be  served  whole  should  be 
made  into  soup  or  puree,  as  straining  removes  the  hull  and 
coarse  fibre,  leaving  the  digestible  part  of  the  vegetable. 
Flour  or  cornstarch  is  added  to  these  soups  to  keep  the 
vegetable  from  settling.  This  flour  or  cornstarch  and  the 
butter  usually  mixed  with  it  are  called  "  binding  material/' 
because  they  bind  together  the  solid  and  liquid  parts  of  the 
soup. 

Recipe  for  Green  Pea  Soup 

*  Green  peas,  1  pt.  Salt,  1 1. 

One  small  onion.  Pepper,  1 1. 

Boiling  water,  1  qt.  Sugar,  |  to  It.  (more  for  old  peas 
Milk,  1  pt.,  or  more.  than  for  young). 

Butter,  2  tb.  Flour,  2  tb. 

Peas  too  old  to  be  served  as  a  vegetable  may  be  used  for 
soup.  Cook  the  onion  with  the  peas  in  the  water.  Scald 
the  milk.  When  the  peas  are  very  soft,  remove  the  onion 
and  mash  the  peas  through  a  strainer,  add  to  them  the  milk, 
and  reheat.  Rub  the  flour  and  butter  together,  stir  into 
them  a  little  of  the  soup,  and  turn  this  mixture  back  into 
the  rest  of  the  soup.  Stir  till  smooth,  add  seasoning  and 
sugar,  and  serve  with  croutons. 

To  prepare  croutons,  cut  buttered  slices  of  bread  one-half 
inch  thick  into  half-inch  squares.  Heat  these  on  a  pan  in 
1  Or  use  1  can  of  peas  and  1  pint  of  water. 


254  THEORY  AND  PRACTICE  OF  COOKERY 

Table  of  Cream-of- 


Name  op  Soup 

Vegetables 

Liquid 

Binding  or 
Thickening 

Water 

Milk 

Butter 

Flour 

Cream  of  tomato. 

Tomatoes, 
i  can. 

Iqt. 

2tb. 

3tb. 

Cream  of  aspara- 
gus. 

Asparagus,  1 
bunch. 

1      qt.          (Boil 
down  to  1  pt.) 

Ipt. 

2tb. 

2tb. 

Cream  of  celery. 

Celery,  3  roots, 
or  3   outside 
pieces    of    3 
stalks     with 
leaves. 

1     pt.     hot,    or 
enough          to 
cover  the  cel- 
ery.    • 

Iqt. 

2tb. 

2tb. 

Cream  of   turnip, 
carrot,  etc. 

Mashed   vege- 
table,    1     to 
2  c. 

1     pt.     of     the 
water  the  veg- 
etable        was 
cooked  in. 

1  pt. 

2tb. 

2tb. 

Potato. 

3    large   pota- 
toes. 

1  qt. 

2tb. 

2tb. 

Split  pea. 

Dried         split 
peas,  1  c. 

3  pts.  cold. 

Enough  to 
thin    the 
soup 
properly. 

2tb. 

2tb. 

FRUITS  AND  VEGETABLES 


255 


VEGETABLE  SoUPS 


Seasoning 

Other  In- 
gredients 

Special  Directions  for  Preparing  the  Soups 
For  General  Directions,  see  pp.  256,  398. 

Salt,  1  t. 
Pepper,  |  t. 

Soda,  f.g. 

Scald  the  milk,   and   thicken   it  with  the 
flour    and    butter.      Cook    the    tomatoes  • 
ten  minutes,  or  till   soft,  add  the  soda, 
and  strain.     Stir  the  tomato  slowly  into 
the  thickened  milk,  taking  care  that  it 
does   not   cook    after   being   mixed,    and 
serve  at  once.     (See  Caution  on  p.  257.) 

Salt,  1  t. 
Pepper,  f.g. 

Break  off  the  heads,  and  cook  them  with 
the  stalks  in  the  water.  Take  out  the 
heads  as  soon  as  they  are  tender,  and 
either  serve  them  on  toast,  or  put  them 
in  the  tureen  before  turning  in  the  soup. 

Salt,  li  t. 
Celery  salt,  |  t. 
Pepper,  ^  t. 

Wash  the  celery,  cut  it  into  short  pieces, 
and  simmer  it  in  the  water  till  soft. 

Salt  and  pepper,  ac- 
cording to  quan- 
tity of  seasoning 
already  added  to 
the  vegetable. 

If  a  "left-over"  mashed  vegetable  is  used, 
heat  the  milk  and  water  together,  and 
pour  them  on  to  it.  Strain  and  bind  as 
usual. 

Salt,  1  t. 
Pepper,  i  t. 

Parsley,  2  t. 
Bit  of  bay-leaf. 
Onion,  1  slice. 
Celery-root  (if 
on  hand). 

Boil  the  potatoes,  and  mash  them  through 
a  strainer  into  a  saucepan.  Cook  the 
onion  in  the  milk.  When  the  latter  reaches 
the  scalding-point,  take  out  the  onion, 
and  stir  the  milk  into  the  potato.  Bind 
with  the  flour  and  butter ;  season  ;  strain 
into  a  tureen,  and  sprinkle  with  parsley. 

Salt,  1  t. 
Pepper,  |  t. 

Ham-bone, 
slice    of   on- 
ion, or  both, 
may           be 
cooked  with 
the  peas. 

Soak  the  peas  overnight.  In  the  morn- 
ing drain  them  and  simmer  them  in  the 
water  two  hours  or  more,  adding  more 
water  as  the  first  boils  away.  When 
very  soft  rub  peas  and  water  through  a 
strainer. 

256     THEORY  AND  PRACTICE  OF  COOKERY 

the  overi;  stirring  occasionally,  till  they  are  crisp  and  golden- 
brown.  Pass  them  with  soup.  They  may  be  kept  and 
reheated. 

Recipe  for  Tomato  Soup  without  Stock 

Note.  —  This  soup,  although  it  contains  no  milk  nor  cream,  is  given 
here  because  in  other  respects  it  is  made  like  cream-of-vegetable  soups. 

Tomatoes,  1  can,  or  Cloves,  4. 

Fresh-cooked  tomatoes,  1  qt.  Cornstarch,  3  tb. 

Hot  water,  1  pt.  Butter,  j  c. 

Onion,  1  shce.  Sugar,  1  tb. 

Celery  salt,  1 1.,  or  Pepper,  f.g. 

Salt,  1 1.,  and  a  sprig  of  celery  cooked  in  the  soup. 

Cook  water,  tomatoes,  onions,  and  cloves  together  for 
twenty  minutes ;  strain  and  add  the  butter ;  stir  in  the 
cornstarch  wet  to  a  smooth  paste  with  cold  water;  boil 
the  soup  till  clear ;   and  season. 

Cornstarch  is  used  in  this  recipe  because  it  gives  a  clearer 
soup  than  flour  does.  Why  is  it  mixed  with  water  instead 
of  with  butter?  Which  lumps  most  easily,  pure  starch  or 
flour?  Why?  Why  is  more  thickening  required  for 
tomato  than  for  pea  soup  ? 

General  proportions  of  ingredients  for  cream-of-vege- 
table soups.  —  To  one  quart  of  liquid  (water,  milk,  stock) 
use  one  to  two  cupfuls  of  thick  vegetable  pulp,  two  table- 
spoonfuls  of  butter,  one  to  three  tablespoonfuls  of  flour,  one 
teaspoonful  of  salt,  and  from  a  few  grains  to  one-eighth  of 
a  teaspoonful  of  pepper. 

General  directions  for  making  cream-of-vegetable  soups. 
—  First  method.     Cook  the  vegetable  in  water  till  very  soft. 


FRUITS  AND  VEGETABLES  257 

Press  the  pulp  through  a  sieve,  vegetable  press,  or  strainer, 
using  the  cooking  water  to  help  wash  the  pulp  through. 
Heat  milk  and  pulp  together,  stir  into  them  the  binding 
material  (cornstarch  mixed  with  water,  or  flour  mixed  with 
butter),  boil  till  smooth,  and  season.  If  too  thick,  add  more 
milk.  The  coarser  the  vegetable,  the  coarser  should  be  the 
strainer  used.  Onions,  herbs,  and  whole  spices  may  be 
cooked  in  the  water  or  milk  used  in  the  soup  ;  other  season- 
ings are  added  at  the  last.  Second  method.  Use  equal 
parts  of  thin  white  sauce  and  of  vegetable  water  or  pulp  and 
water.  Mix  together,  boil  till  smooth,  and  season.  To  make 
the  soup  richer,  part  cream  may  be  used  instead  of  all  milk, 
or  white  stock  instead  of  water. 

Two  or  more  left-over  vegetables  may  be  combined  in 
one  soup. 

Study  the  table  on  pp.  254  and  255,  noting  in  what  respects 
the  soups  are  alike,  in  what  different.  Think  out,  if  you 
can,  the  reasons  for  variations  in  quantity  of  water  used, 
time  of  cooking,  etc. 

Caution.  —  Cream-of-tomato  soup  (see  table,  p.  254)  must 
be  made  with  great  care  to  prevent  the  acid  in  the  toma- 
toes from  curdling  the  milk.  Pour  the  tomato  slowly  into 
the  milk ;  if  the  milk  be  poured  into  the  tomato,  it  will 
curdle.  Take  care  not  to  combine  milk  and  tomato  till  just 
before  the  soup  is  served,  as  milk  heated  with  acid  is  almost 
sure  to  curdle.  Adding  a  bit  of  soda  helps  to  neutralize  the 
acid.  Draw  the  saucepan  away  from  the  heat  before  add- 
ing the  soda;  otherwise  the  tomato  may  foam. over.  Ex- 
plain this.     What  gas  is  formed  ?     (P.  108.) 


258     THEORY  AND  PRACTICE  OF  COOKERY 

Bean  Pueee 
Beans,  1  qt.  Baking-soda,  J  t. 

Onion,  1  small  one.  Butter,  2  tb. 

Carrot,  2  slices.  Milk  or  cream. 

A  bit  of  bay-leaf.  Salt,  f  t. 

Pepper,  a  f.g. 

Wash  the  beans,  and  soak  in  cold  water  overnight.  In 
the  morning  drain,  cover  them  with  cold  water,  and  when 
this  boils,  drain  them  again.  Add  soda,  onion,  bay-leaf, 
and  carrot.  Boil  gently  until  the  beans  are  soft ;  then 
press  them  through  a  colander;  add  butter,  salt,  pepper, 
and  milk  or  cream  enough  to  thin  the  puree  to  your  taste. 
Serve  as  a  vegetable. 

Section  4.    Salads 

The  salad,  or  "  salet,'^  of  olden  times  was  always  a  dish 
of  green  herbs  dressed  with  vinegar  and  other  condiments. 

Lettuce  is  still  eaten  by  some  people  with  vinegar  and 
sugar. 

But  the  salad  of  to-day,  while  it  always  includes  some 
green  vegetable,  either  cooked  or  raw,  may  include  almost 
any  other  food.  Chicken,  lobster,  hard-boiled  eggs,  many 
kinds  of  vegetables,  fruits,  nuts,  and  cheese,  are  among  the 
materials  most  often  served  in  salad  form.  Lettuce  is 
served  alone  or  as  a  bed  for  these  other  ingredients.  The 
dressing  usually  contains  oil,  butter,  or  cream.  Romaine, 
chicory,  endive,  cress,  and  other  edible  leaves,  are  used  as 
lettuce  is.  Olive-oil,  peanut-oil,  or  the  best  grade  of  cotton- 
seed oil  may  be  used  in  salad  dressings.  (See  Vegetable  fats 
and  oils,  p.  213.) 


PLATE  XIII. 


Asparagus  Cooking. 


]V$ACEDoiNE  Salad. 


FRUITS  AND  VEGETABLES  259 

SALAD-MAKING 

Four  things  essential  in  salad-making.  —  A  salad  must 
be  cold,  the  greens  in  it  crisp,  the  ingredients  in  the  dressing 
carefully  proportioned  and  blended  so  that  it  shall  be  neither 
oily  nor  acid,  and  the  whole  well-mixed.  With  these  con- 
ditions fulfilled,  a  handful  of  lettuce  leaves  dressed  with 
salt,  pepper,  oil,  and  vinegar  is  in  its  way  a  perfect  dish. 
Because  of  the  judgment  and  deftness  required  to  produce 
this  perfection,  it  is  often  desirable  to  dress  the  salad  at 
the  table  rather  than  to  have  it  brought  to  the  table 
dressed. 

Preparing  the  ingredients.  —  Lettuce  is  used  as  a  bed 
for  any  salad.  As  soon  as  it  comes  into  the  house,  sprinkle 
it,  and  put  it  in  the  ice-box,  in  a  covered  pail,  if  you  can. 
To  prepare  it  for  use,  cut  off  the  stem,  separate  the  leaves, 
discard  the  outside  ones,  and  let  the  others  lie  for  at  least 
fifteen  minutes  in  the  coldest  water  you  can  provide. 
Wash  them  clean,  taking  care  not  to  break  them ;  look 
sharply  to  see  that  no  insects  cling  to  them ;  shake  lightly 
or  swing  them  in  a  wire  basket  or  a  salad-net  ^  to  dry  them 
partially;  and  wipe  them  carefully  with  a  soft  cloth.  If 
left  wet,  the  dressing  runs  off  them.  Freshen  and  dry 
other  salad  leaves  in  the  same  way.  Other  vegetables.  — 
(For  tomatoes  and  cucumbers,  see  p.  247.)  Remove  the 
strings  from  string  beans,  and  cook  them  without  breaking 
or  cutting.  Keep  parsley  in  a  glass  of  water,  with  only  the 
roots  wet.     Cut  cooked  vegetables  except  potatoes  into  half- 

1  Bags  made  of  coarse  netting  are  sold  for  this  purpose. 


260     THEORY  AND  PRACTICE  OF  COOKERY 

inch  cubes,  or  small  irregular  bits.  Put  remnants  of  cooked 
vegetables  into  a  colander  and  pour  hot  water  over  them  to 
rinse  off  any  butter. 

Arranging  the  salad.  —  If  only  lettuce  is  to  be  served, 
put  it  in  a  pretty  bowl,  either  glass,  or  of  some  color  that 
looks  well  with  the  green  of  the  leaves.  Arrange  these  to 
form  a  frill  above  the  edge  of  the  dish,  and  let  the  centre  be 
a  nest  of  cool  shadowy  green.  The  arranging  of  salads 
gives  a  girl  a  chance  to  display  artistic  skill  no  less  than  does 
the  embroidering  of  a  doily,  or  the  making  of  a  sketch.  How 
satisfactory  to  be  able  to  combine  those  few  spoonfuls  of 
peas,  beets,  potatoes,  and  what  not,  left  from  two  or  three 
dinners  into  a  pyramid  of  pretty  colors,  wreathed  with 
green  and  blossoming  with  radish  "  rose-buds  "  !  (Mace- 
doine  Salad.)  Or,  starting  with  fresh  materials,  what 
pleasure  may  be  found  in  bringing  out  the  beauty  of  glowing 
tomatoes  nestled  in  palest  green,  and  crowned  with  golden 
Mayonnaise !  (Stuffed  Tomato  Salad.)  Nor  do  thrift  and 
taste  and  judgment  alone  come  into  play  in  salad-making ; 
use  your  originality  and  invention,  and  you  can  produce 
many  a  salad  not  described  in  cook-books,  but  delightful 
to  eye  and  taste. 

To  dress  lettuce  at  the  table.  —  Mix  oil  and  seasonings 
in  the  salad  spoon,  pour  them  over  the  lettuce,  and  toss  and 
turn  this  till  every  leaf  is  coated.  Then  add  the  vinegar, 
and  toss  again.  To  vary  the  flavor,  have  the  salad  bowl 
rubbed  with  a  "  clove  of  garlic,"  or  have  a  piece  of  bread 
rubbed  with  garlic  at  the  bottom  of  the  bowl. 

Reasons  why  salads  should  be  eaten  more  than  they 


FRUITS  AND  VEGETABLES  261 

are.  —  While  the  food  value  of  a  green  salad  is  not  large, 
the  salts  it  supplies  and  its  refreshing,  appetizing  qualities 
make  it  a  most  wholesome  food.  The  oil  or  butter  used  in 
dressing  it  furnishes  fat  in  a  digestible  form.  The  acid 
vinegar  is  believed  to  help  digest  the  cellulose.  Salads  are 
prepared  with  little  trouble  and  with  no  expense  for  fuel. 
Some  vegetable  suitable  for  salad  can  be  obtained  all  the 
year  round,  even  canned  ones  making,  with  fresh  greens, 
an  acceptable  dish.  If  you  cannot  have  salad  every  day, 
have  it  as  often  as  you  can.  Some  people  now  have  salad 
instead  of  dessert,  and  if  you  cannot  have  both  at  the  same 
dinner,  it  is  well  to  substitute  salad  for  pudding  two  or  three 
times  a  week  at  least. 

Plain  French  Dressing 

Salt,  i  t.  Olive  oil,  3  tb.  or  more. 

Pepper,  1 1.  Vinegar  (malt,  wine,  or  tarragon),  1  tb. 

Onion  juice  (if  desired),  or  rub  the  salad  bowl  with  a  clove  of  garlic. 

Stir  the  seasonings  into  the  oil,  add  the  vinegar,  and 
stir  vigorously  until  the  dressing  thickens  slightly.  A 
larger  quantity  made  in  the  same  proportions  may  be  passed 
in  a  bowl. 

Cooked  Salad  Dressing  (without  oil) 


Mustard,  ^  t. 

Sugar,  1 1. 

Salt,  i  t. 

Yolk  of  1  egg. 

Cayenne,  f.g. 

Milk,  f  c. 

Flour,  1  tb. 

Butter,  melted,  2  t. 

Hot  vinegar,  |  c. 

262     THEORY  AND  PRACTICE  OF  COOKERY 

Mix  the  dry  ingredients  in  a  saucepan,  stir  into  them 

the  yolk  of  egg,  butter,  and  milk.     Stir  the  mixture  over 

hot  water  until  it  begins  to  thicken,  then  stir  in  the  vinegar, 

a  few  drops  at  a  time.     When  as  thick  as  thick  cream,  strain 

and  cool. 

Mayonnaise  Dressing 

Yolk  of  1  egg.      Cayenne  pepper,  f.g.,  or  paprika,  i  t.    Mustard,  if  liked, 
Olive  oil,  1  c.  ^  t.     Lemon  juice   or    strong    malt    or    tarragon 

Salt,  1 1.  vinegar,  about  2  tb. 

Mix  in  a  bowl  or  soup-plate  with  a  silver  fork.  To 
insure  success,  have  bowl,  oil,  and  egg  very  cold ;  and 
add  oil  very  slowly.  In  summer  set  the  bowl  in  a  pan  of 
cracked  ice  while  mixing  the  dressing. 

Break  and  separate  the  egg,  taking  care  that  no  white 
remains  with  the  yolk.  Beat  the  yolk  thoroughly,  and  stir 
into  it  the  seasonings  mixed  and  some  of  the  vinegar  or  lemon- 
juice.  Add  the  oil,  a  teaspoonful  at  a  time  at  first,  beating 
hard.  As  it  thickens,  add  more  rapidly,  but  never  add 
more  until  that  in  the  bowl  has  become  thoroughly  mixed 
with  the  egg.  When  too  stiff  to  beat  easily,  add  a  little 
vinegar  or  lemon  juice,  and  continue  adding  oil  and  vinegar 
alternately,  until  all  is  in.  The  dressing  should  hold  its 
shape.  More  oil  and  seasonings  can  be  added  to  one  yolk 
to  make  a  larger  quantity  of  dressing. 

If  the  dressing  should  separate,  beat  another  yolk,  and 
beat  the  dressing  slowly  into  it,  as  you  would  oil. 

To  keep  mayonnaise,  put  it  into  a  covered  jar  on  the  ice- 
box. 

French  dressing  may  be  served  with  any  green  salad. 


FRUITS  AND  VEGETABLES  263 

Either  mayonnaise  or  cooked  salad  dressing  is  appropriate 
with  almost  all  vegetables.  Cooked  dressing  is  usually 
used  with  cabbage ;  mayonnaise  usually  with  meat  or  fish. 

Note  to  Teacher.  —  White  of  egg  may  be  used  instead  of  yolk  for 
mayonnaise.  Half  the  pupils  may  use  whites  and  half  may  use  yolks,  and 
all  the  dressing  be  mixed  at  the  end  of  the  lesson. 

Mixed  Vegetable  or  Macedoine  Salad 

Cold  cooked  peas,  carrots^  beets,  string  beans,  almost 
any  cold  vegetables,  may  be  combined  in  this  salad. 

Cut  beets  and  carrots  in  half-inch  cubes,  string  beans  and 
celery  in  short  lengths,  mix  each  vegetable  separately  with 
French  dressing,  and  arrange  them  in  sections,  forming  a 
circular  mound.  Let  vegetables  of  contrasting  colors  come 
next  each  other.  Garnish  with  radishes,  celery  tips,  lettuce 
leaves,  etc.     (See  plate  XIII,  facing  page  259.) 

Potato  Salad 

Hot  boiled  potatoes  cut  into  ^-inch  cubes,  3  c. 
Salad  oil,  9  tb.  Pepper,  i  t. 

Vinegar,  3  t.  Onion,  chopped  fine,  j  c. 

Salt,  1  tb.  Parsley,  cut  fine,  1  tb. 

Mix  these  ingredients  thoroughly,  heap  the  salad  on  a 

dish,  and  garnish  with  radishes,  sliced,  or  cut  in  rose  form 

(p.  247),  and  sprigs  of  parsley. 

Stuffed  Tomato  Salad 

Medium-sized  tomatoes,  8.  Mayonnaise  dressing,  1  c. 

"Celery  cut  in  small  pieces,  Lettuce. 

or  Salt. 
Cucumber  cut  in  cubes,  2  c. 


264     THEORY  AND  PRACTICE  OF  COOKERY 

Scald  and  peel  the  tomatoes ;  slice  off  their  tops.  Scrape 
out  the  seeds  and  a  little  of  the  .pulp,  and  fill  the  cavities 
heaping  full  with  celery  or  cucumber  mixed  with  Mayon- 
naise dressing.  Make  on  a  platter,  or  on  separate  plates, 
nests  of  tender  lettuce  leaves,  and  put  a  tomato  in  each  nest. 

Cole-slaw 

One-half  of  a  small  hard  cabbage. 
Cooked  salad  dressing,  hot,  1  c. 

Soak  the  cabbage  in  cold  salt  water  for  thirty  minutes, 
shred  it  fine  with  a  sharp  knife  or  vegetable  shredder^  and 
mix  the  dressing  with  it.     Serve  cold. 

Brief  Reference  List 

For  further  development  of  topics  treated  in  this  section 
see :  — 

Sherman:  Food  products.    Ch.  9. 

BiGELOW :  Applied  biology.     Ch.  8. 

Snyder  :  Human  foods.     Ch.  3  and  6. 

Snell  :  Household  chemistry.     Ch.  38. 

Ward  :  Grocers'  encyclopedia. 

U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agriculture:  Farmers'  bulletins:  121.  Beans,  peas, 
and  other  legumes  as  food;  256.  Preparation  of  vegetables  for  the 
table ;  232.  Okra,  its  culture  and  uses ;  298.  Food  value  of  corn  and 
corn  products;  559.  Use  of  corn,  kaffir,  and  cow  peas  in  the  home. 
Yearbook  for  1911,  pp.  439-452,  Green  vegetables  and  their  uses  in  the 
diet. 


CHAPTER  IX 

SUGAR  AND  SWEETS 

Section  1.    Sugar  —  Candies 
a  study  of  sugar 

Review  a  study  of  starch,  p.  68. 

A.  Examine  granulated  white  sugar,  and  (if  possible  to  obtain  it) 
some  soHd  glucose.  In  which  are  the  particles  most  distinct?  Taste 
each.  Which  is  the  sweeter?  If  soUd  glucose  is  not  obtainable,  use 
commercial  glucose,  "  corn-syrup." 

Experiments  with  glucose  and  with  white  sugar.  —  B.  Stir  sugar  into 
a  glass  of  cold  water  until  no  more  will  dissolve.  Do  the  same  with 
boihng  hot  water.     Does  sugar  dissolve  better  in  hot  water  or  in  cold? 

C.  Heat  a  httle  sugar  slowly  in  a  test-tube  till  it  melts.  What  forms 
on  the  sides  of  the  tube?  What  two  elements  must  sugar  contain?  Pour 
out  some  of  the  Uquid.  Continue  to  heat  the  rest  till  it  turns  brown. 
Heat  the  rest  till  only  a  dry  black  substance  is  left.  What  do  you  think 
this  is? 

D.  Repeat  these  experiments  with  glucose. 

E.  Put  into  a  test-tube  a  httle  of  the  glucose  solution  in  the  glass. 
Add  a  few  drops  of  Fehhng's  solution  and  boil.  What  happens?  Try 
the  same  experiment  with  the  sugar  solution.  If  you  had  a  can  of  syrup 
and  you  did  not  know  whether  it  contained  glucose,  how  could  you  find 
out? 

In  what  ways  are  sugar  and  glucose  alike?  How  do  they  differ? 
In  what  ways  do  both  resemble  starch?  (See  experiments  in  heating 
starch,  p.  69.) 

Sugars  are  carbohydrates.  —  Like  starches,  they  are 
composed  of  carbon  and  of  hydrogen  and  oxygen  in  the  right 

265 


266     THEORY  AND  PRACTICE  OF  COOKERY 

proportion  to  form  water.  Starches  can  be  changed  into 
sugars.     (See  p.  70.) 

The  different  sugars.  —  When  we  use  the  word  sugar, 
we  usually  mean  the  kind  of  sugar  in  most  common  use, 
that  which  is  made  from  sugar-cane  or  from  sugar-beets. 
But  there  are  many  sugars,  just  as  there  are  many  starches. 
Cane-sugar  and  beet-sugar,  however,  are  not  really  two 
different  sugars.  They  are  chemically  the  same,  and  the 
name  cane-sugar  is  applied  to  both.  Glucose  is  also  a  sugar, 
but  it  has  different  properties  from  cane-sugar.  It  is  less 
sweet  and  less  soluble  than  cane-sugar,  and  it  does  not 
readily  form  crystals  as  cane-sugar  does.  With  Fehling's 
solution  glucose  forms  a  red  precipitate.  Cane-sugar  does 
not.  Cane-sugar  melts  at  320°,  forming  a  clear  liquid. 
When  cool  this  remains  transparent  and  is  called  barley 
sugar.  At  a  higher  temperature  the  liquid  becomes  brown. 
Some  of  the  water  has  been  driven  off,  and  a  mixture  of 
dark-colored  substances  called  caramel  is  formed.  Caramel 
is  used  for  coloring  and  flavoring.  When  all  the  moisture 
is  driven  off,  only  carbon  is  left. 

Glucose  is  known  also  as  grape-sugar  because  it  is  abundant 
in  grapes.  When  grapes  are  dried  to  make  raisins,  the  grape- 
sugar  appears  on  the  surface  in  grains,  as  it  does  also  on  other 
dried  fruits.  It  occurs  in  many  fruits  and  some  vegetables, 
usually  with  another  sugar,  called  fruit-sugar,  or  fructose. 

When  cane-sugar  is  boiled  with  acid,  some  of  it  splits  into 
grape-sugar  and  fruit-sugar. 

Milk-sugar  is  prepared  from  milk  for  use  in  infant's  food 
and  in  medicine.     Honey  consists  chiefly  of  glucose  and 


SUGAR  AND  SWEETS  267 

fructose  with  flavoring  matter  from  the  flowers.  It  was 
used  for  sweetening  before  cane-sugar  was  known. 

The  chief  sources  of  cane-sugar  are  the  sugar-cane,  sugar- 
beets,  the  sugar-maple,  the  sugar-palm,  and  sorghum. 
Americans  and  Europeans  use  mostly  cane-  and  beet-sugar. 
Sugar-cane  is  a  tropical  grass,  higher  than  corn.  Sugar- 
beets  are  large  and  white.  They  grow  in  different  climates, 
including  places  where  it  is  too  cold  for  sugar-cane. 

The  manufacture  of  sugar.  —  In  cane-sugar  factories  the 
juice  is  squeezed  out  of  the  canes  between  rollers.  In  beet- 
sugar  factories,  the  beets  are  sliced  into  strips  and  the 
juice  dissolved  out  of  them  in  tanks  of  warm  water.  After 
this  the  process  is  similar  in  all  factories.  The  juice  is  puri- 
fied, filtered,  and  boiled  down  ^  to  a  syrup.  This  syrup  is 
boiled  again  till  sugar  crystals  form.  The  sugar  is  separated 
from  the  uncrystallizable  part  of  the  syrup  in  a  centrifugal 
drier,  a  wire  basket  which  throws  the  syrup  out  as  it  re- 
volves. This  ^^  raw  sugar  '^  varies  in  grade  and  color. 
Some  of  it,  including  brown  sugars,  is  sold  without  refining. 
Most  of  it,  including  all  beet-sugar,  is  refined.  Granulated 
sugar  has  been  refined,  dried,  and  sifted.  Cube  or  domino 
sugar  has  been  refined,  and  either  moulded  and  sawed  or 
pressed  into  blocks.  Pulverized  and  confectioner^ s  sugar 
are  made  by  grinding  and  sifting  the  fragments  of  block 
sugar.  Brown  sugars  are  less  refined  grades.  Refined  white 
sugar  is  said  to  be  the  purest  manufactured  food  we  have. 

1  All  boiling  is  done  in  vacuum  kettles  and  pans.  These  are  air-tight 
vessels  from  which  part  of  the  air  has  been  drawn  out  to  lower  the  boiling- 
point  and  so  avoid  burning  the  syrup. 


268     THEORY  AND  PRACTICE  OF  COOKERY 

It  is  rarely  adulterated.  But  it  is  blued^  much  as  clothes 
are.  Manufacturers  declare  it  would  not  sell  if  left  its  natu- 
ral creamy  color.     What  do  you  think  about  this? 

Molasses.  —  The  uncrystallizable  syrup  separated  from 
sugar  forms  molasses.  "  Porto  Rico  '^  molasses  is  darker 
than  "  New  Orleans."  Modern  methods  of  sugar-making 
do  not  produce  the  rich  dark  molasses  of  former  days. 

Experiment  with  molasses.  —  Test  molasses  with  litmus  paper.  Is 
it  acid  or  alkaline?  If  acid,  put  a  little  in  a  test-tube  and  add  a  pinch  of 
baking-soda.  Test  again.  What  does  the  foaming  of  the  molasses  show? 
(P.  108.) 

Old-fashioned  molasses  was  distinctly  acid,  and  soda  could 
be  used  with  it  to  make  batters  light.  If  molasses  is  only 
slightly  acid,  or  if  only  a  little  molasses  is  called  for  by  the 
recipe,  some  baking-powder  must  be  used  besides  the  soda. 
Canned  molasses  may  not  be  acid  at  all. 

Table  syrup  is  also  made  from  cane-juice. 

Sugar  and  syrup  made  from  starch.  —  Weak  acid  acts 
on  starch  as  diastase  (amylase)  does,  converting  it  into 
a  mixture  of  sugars  and  gums,  finally  into  glucose.  In 
this  way  great  quantities  of  syrup  are  made  from  starch  and 
sold  as  "  glucose  "  or  "  corn-syrup."  The  process  is  stopped 
when  the  liquor  is  about  half  dextrose  and  half  dextrin. 
It  contains  a  small  quantity  of  mineral  matter,  which  gets 
in  during  manufacture.  Neutralized  and  purified,  it  forms 
a  clear  syrup.  As  it  is  almost  tasteless,  it  is  usually  flavored 
with  cane-sugar.  This  "  commercial  glucose  "  is  said  to  be 
essential  to  the  making  of  some  kinds  of  candy.  As  it  is 
much  cheaper  than  cane-sugar,  manufacturers  who  use  it 


SUGAR  AND  SWEETS  269 

in  canned  fruits  are  required  by  law  to  so  state  on  the  label. 
Solid  glucose  (commercial  dextrose)  is  used  for  manufactur- 
ing purposes  only.  It  comes  in  angular  pieces,  light-brown 
in  color  and  brittle. 

Digestion  of  cane-sugar.  —  Sugar  is  digested  in  the 
small  intestine,  where  it  is  split  into  glucose  and  fructose. 
In  small  quantities  it  is  completely  digestible,  and  is  rapidly 
absorbed.  When  eaten  in  excess,  some  of  it  is  likely  to 
undergo  acid  fermentation  instead  of  digestion. 

Food  value  of  sugar.  —  Sugar  is  equal  to  starch  as  a 
source  of  muscular  energy.  Ordinarily  we  could  not  sub- 
stitute sugar  wholly  for  starch,  because  sugar  is  too  rapidly 
digested  to  be  handled  by  the  body  as  advantageously  as 
starch  is.  But  in  cases  where  great  energy  must  be  exerted 
in  a  short  time,  increasing  the  amount  of  sugar  in  the  diet 
gives  working  power  and  delays  fatigue.  It  has  been  noticed 
that  lumbermen  and  hard-working  farmers  consume  quanti- 
ties of  cakes,  preserves,  and  other  sweet  stuff.  Athletes 
and  soldiers  on  the  march  tire  less  quickly  when  allowed 
extra  sugar.  It  is  natural  that  children,  who  are  so  active, 
should  crave  sugar,  and  right  for  them  to  have  a  certain 
amount  of  it.  One  virtue  of  sugar  is  its  flavor,  which  makes 
other  foodstuffs  more  palatable.  There  is  danger,  however, 
of  its  being  used  to  excess  just  because  it  tastes  good.  It 
is  a  mistake  to  use  so  much  sugar,  either  in  cooking  or  at 
the  table,  that  the  mildly  pleasant  flavors  of  other  foods 
are  lost.  Lunching  on  sweets  and  habitually  eating  candy 
between  meals  overburdens  the  system.  Home-made  candy 
is  safest,  especially  for  children. 


270 


THEORY  AND  PRACTICE  OF  COOKERY 


U.  S.  Department  of  Aoriculture 
Office  of  Experiment  Stations 
A.  C.  True:  Director 


Prepared  by 

C.  F.  LAN6W0RTHY 

Expert  in  Charge  of  Nutrition  Investigations 

COMPOSITION  OF  FOOD  MATERIALS. 


nnnmii     ^m     Pin^ 

Protein  Fat  Carbohydrates        Ash 


Water 


I  J  Fuel  Value 
/leSq. In. Equals 
1000  Calories 


3M<^K-S^  Carbohydrates:  100.0 


MOLASSES 


Protein:  2.4 


Water;25.1 


,1860    CALORIES 
PER  POUND 


STICK  CANDY 

Carbohydrates:  96.5 


Fuel  value: 


1290  CALORIES 
PER  POUND 


Water:  3.0 


MAPLE  SUGAR 


Fuel  value: 


1785   CALORIES 
PER  POUND 


Ash:  0.5 


HONEY 


Ash:0.9- 


-'—-Water:  16.3      Water:18.2 
Protein:  0.4 


I'u'tH";:  •,•;•! 'ma 


Carbo^  Car 

hydrates:  82.8      hydrates  :81 .2 


Fuel  value: 


Fuel  value: 


ish:0.2 


1540  CALORIES  PER  POUND 


1520 


calories  per  pound 


Chart  12. 


SUGAR  AND  SWEETS  271 

CANDY-MAKING 

Syrup  made  by  boiling  sugar  and  water  is  used  for  most 
kinds  of  candy.  The  longer  it  boils,  the  thicker  and  hotter 
it  becomes.  At  220°  F.  a  drop  of  syrup  let  fall  from  the 
spoon  spins  itself  into  a  fine  thread.  At  238°  F.  a  little 
syrup  dropped  into  cold  water  can  be  rolled  into  a  soft  ball 
between  the  fingers,  at  248°  into  a  hard  ball.  At  310°  it 
becomes  brittle  when  dropped  into  cold  water,  and  is  said 
to  be  boiled  to  the  crack.  A  sugar  thermometer  may  be 
used  to  test  the  temperature. 

Caramel.  —  Sugar  heated  dry  melts.  If  heated  to  about 
350°,  it  turns  brown,  showing  that  caramel  has  formed 
(p.  69).  If  we  boil  all  the  water  out  of  syrup,  and  continue 
to  heat  it,  it  will  caramelize. 

Molasses  Candy 
Molasses,  2  c.  Butter,  3  tb. 

Sugar,  1  c.  Soda,  1 1. 

Vinegar,  1  tb. 

Boil  all  together  to  the  ^^hard  ball"  stage.     Turn  out  on 

a  buttered  plate.     This  candy  may  be  pulled  just  before 

it  hardens.     Butter  the   hands  well  before  handling  the 

candy. 

Butter  Scotch 
Sugar,  1  c.  Molasses,  1  tb. 

Water,  1  c.  Vinegar,  2  tb. 

Butter,  2  tb.  Salt,  f.g. 

Boil  all  together  to  the  crack.  Do  not  stir  more  than  just 
enough  to  keep  it  from  burning.  Drop  from  a  spoon  on 
buttered  or  waxed  paper. 


272     THEORY  AND  PRACTICE  OF  COOKERY 

Peanut  Brittle 

Sugar,  1  c.  Peanuts  (shelled  and  pounded),  1  c. 

A  pinch  of  soda. 

Melt  the  sugar  to  caramel.     (A  cast-iron  pan  is  best  for 

this  purpose.)     Stir  in  the  peanuts  very  quickly,  and  pour 

into  pans  (not  buttered).     Tilt  the  pans  to  spread  the  candy. 

While  it  is  cooling,  mark  it  into  squares  with  the  back  of  a 

steel  knife. 

Chocolate  Fudge 

Granulated  sugar,  3  c.  Butter,  3  tb. 

Unsweetened  chocolate,  2  oz.  or       Milk,  1|  c. 
Cocoa,  ^  c.  Salt,  f.g. 

Vanilla  extract,  1 1. 

Boil  all  the  ingredients  except  the  vanilla  to  a  soft  ball. 
Let  cool.  Add  vanilla.  Beat  until  creamy.  Pour  upon  a 
buttered  dish.     When  partly  firm,  mark  into  squares. 

Fondant 

Sugar,  2|  lb.  Hot  water,  li  c. 

Cream  of  tartar,  1 1. 

Stir  the  ingredients  together  in  a  smooth  saucepan.  Let 
them  come  gradually  to  the  boiling-point,  keeping  the  pan 
covered.  Boil  to  the  soft-ball  stage,  or  until  the  tempera- 
ture is  238°  F.  This  usually  takes  about  30  minutes.^ 
Have  ready  an  oiled  marble  slab  or  large  platter.  When  the 
soft-ball  stage  is  reached,  pour  the  fondant  slowly  upon  it. 

1  If  cooked  uncovered,  the  syrup  requires  only  abQut  20  minutes.  But 
granules  form  on  the  pan,  which  must  be  wiped  off  with  a  cloth  wet  in  cold 
water.  Cooking  covered  is  easier  for  the  inexperienced.  When  fondant  is 
made  in  a  moist  atmosphere,  it  is  likely  to  be  grainy.     It  should  be  smooth. 


SUGAR  AND  SWEETS  273 

Let  it  cool  until  it  will  keep  the  impression  of  the  fingers. 
Work  it  with  a  wooden  spatula  or  spoon  until  it  is  creamy. 
Then  knead  it  with  the  hands  until  perfectly  smooth.  Put 
it  into  an  oiled  bowl  and  cover  it  with  oiled  paper  to  keep  the 
air  out.     Let  it  stand  24  hours  before  using  it. 

Fondant  may  be  colored  and  flavored  and  combined  with 
nutS;  fruit,  cocoanut,  chocolate,  etc.  in  a  variety  of  ways. 
For  bonbons,  make  centres  of  small  balls  of  fondant  mixed 
with  any  of  these  other  ingredients.  Let  them  stand  over 
night.  Melt  some  fondant  in  a  pan  over  hot  water.  Dip 
the  balls  in  it,  dropping  in  one  at  a  time,  and  removing  to 
oiled  paper  with  a  two-tined  fork  or  a  bonbon  dipper. 

Note.  —  Cream  of  tartar  is  used  to  prevent  the  fondant  from  crystal- 
lizing. Being  acid,  it  helps  to  turn  some  of  the  cane-sugar  into  a  mix- 
ture of  grape-sugar  and  fruit-sugar,  which  does  not  readily  crystallize. 

Brief  Reference  List 

For  further  development  of  topics  treated  in  this  section 
see :  — 

Sherman:  Food  products.    Ch.  11,  Sugars,  syrups,  and  confectionery. 
Surface  :  The  story  of  sugar.     (Chiefly  historical  and  commercial,  ch.  12. 

Candy,  a  national  luxury.) 
Thorpe  :  Dictionary  of  applied  chemistry.    V.  4,  p.  221. 
Ward  :  Grocers^  encyclopedia. 
Fowler:    Bacterial    and    enzym  chemistry.      P.  83,    Chemistry  of  the 

sugars. 
Wiley:  Foods  and  their  adulteration.     (Pt.  9,  Sugar.     Other  places  for 

adulteration  and  poor  material  in  bakery-stuff.) 
U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agriculture:    Farmers' bulletins :    535.  Sugar  as  food; 

52.  The  sugar  beet ;    516.  Production  of  maple  syrup  and  sugar ;    503. 

Comb  honey.      Also  Bureau  of  Chemistry :  Bulletin  134.    Maple  sap 

syrup. 


274  THEORY  AND  PRACTICE  OF  COOKERY 

Section  2.    Cakes  and  Desserts 

Compare  the  recipes  for  Egg  Muffins  (p.  113),  Cottage  Pudding,  and 
Standard  Cake  (p.  277).  Cake,  you  see,  is  only  bread,  with  more  shorten- 
ing, sweetening,  and  eggs,  in  proportion  to  the  flour.  Cottage  Pudding 
may  be  considered  either  a  sweet  muffin  mixture,  or  a  very  plain  cake. 

Two  classes  of  cakes :    butter  and  sponge  cakes.  —  All 

cakes  belong  to  one  of  two  classes,  butter  cakes  and  cakes 
without  butter,  or  sponge  cakes.  Several  kinds  of  cake 
can  easily  be  made  from  one  recipe,  by  varying  the  flavor- 
ings, spices,  and  fruits,  by  baking  the  same  mixture  in  pans 
of  different  shapes,  by  frosting  the  cake  or  leaving  it  plain. 

General  rules  for  the  proportions  of  ingredients  in  cakes. 
—  In  general,  a  cake  should  contain  not  more  than  one-third 
to  one-half  as  much  butter  as  sugar,  and  about  half  as  much 
liquid  as  flour.  Remember  that  butter,  or  other  shortening, 
counts  as  liquid,  since  it  melts  in  the  oven.  Sour  milk  and 
molasses  do  not  thin  a  mixture  as  much  as  sweet  milk  or 
water.  A  cake  with  fruit  should  be  a  little  stiffer  than 
one  without. 

Every  one  who  cooks  should  understand  the  principles 
of  mixing  and  raising  batters  sufficiently  to  know  when  she 
reads  a  new  recipe  whether  or  not  it  will  turn  out  well,  and 
whether  it  is  extravagant  or  reasonable. 

How  much  soda  is  required  for  one  pint  of  sour  milk? 
(P.  109.)  How  much  baking-powder  for  one  cup  of 
flour?  (P.  111.)  The  more  eggs  there  are  in  a  cake,  the 
less  baking-powder  is  needed. 

Account  for  the  absence  of  baking-powder  in  Spice  Cake 
and  Gingerbread.     Why  is  there  no  sugar  in  Gingerbread  ? 


SUGAR  AND  SWEETS  275 

Why  does  Sponge  Cake  require  no  baking-powder  ?  Notice 
some  of  the  other  ways  in  which  recipes  differ,  and  account 
for  these  in  as  many  cases  as  you  can.  (See  suggestions 
about  using  fat  in  cooking,  p.  225.) 

DIRECTIONS   FOR  MIXING  CAKE 

Note.  —  Read  "  Hints  on  How  to  Work,"  p.  52,  "  Batters  and 
Doughs,"  p.  HI,  and  "  Helpful  Hints  about  Mixing  and  Baking  Quick 
Breads,"  p.  112.  What  is  said  about  quick  breads  applies  equally  to 
cakes.    See  Breaking  and  separating  eggs,  p.  90,  and  Beating  eggs,  p.  90. 

How  to  mix  butter  cakes.  —  Sift  together  all  the  dry 
ingredients  except  the  sugar.  (If  fruit  is  to  be  used,  save 
a  little  of  the  flour  to  mix  with  it.)  Cream  the  butter  and 
sugar.  This  means,  first  mash  and  beat  the  butter  until  it 
is  soft  and  light-colored,  and  then  beat  in  the  sugar  by 
degrees.  When  thoroughly  creamed,  the  mixture  is  smooth 
and  almost  white.  Separate  the  eggs,  beat  the  yolks  well,  and 
then  beat  them  into  the  butter  and  sugar.  Add  a  little  of 
the  milk,  then  part  of  the  flour  (with  the  other  dry  ingredi- 
ents sifted  with  it),  a  little  more  milk,  and  so  on  till  all  the 
flour  and  milk  are  stirred  in,  taking  care  to  keep  the  mixture 
always  of  about  the  same  degree  of  stiffness.  Fold  in  the 
whites  beaten  very  stiff.  Add  the  flavoring  and  beat  the 
mixture  well.  If  fruit  or  nuts  are  to  be  added,  fold  them  in 
las^. 

The  eggs  may  be  beaten  whole  and' added  to  the  butter 
and  sugar,  but  separating  them  improves  the  texture  of  the 
cake.  The  process  of  mixing  may  be  shortened  by  using  a 
cake-mixer. 


276     THEORY  AND  PRACTICE  OF  COOKERY 

Compare  these  directions  with  those  for  mixing  Egg  Muf- 
fins. (P.  113.)  What  difference  do  you  observe?  For 
Cottage  Pudding  the  butter  is  melted.  Note  the  proportion 
of  butter  to  sugar,  and  think  why  this  is  done. 

How  to  mix  Sponge  Cake.  —  Beat  the  yolks  till  thick  and 
lemon  colored.  Beat  the  sugar  into  them,  add  the  flavoring 
(and  other  liquid,  if  the  recipe  calls  for  any).  Beat  the 
whites  till  stiff  and  dry;  slip  them  into  the  mixing-bowl; 
sift  the  flour  over  them ;  and  fold  all  together.  It  is  best 
to  use  only  a  wire  egg-beater  in  mixing  sponge  cake. 

Fruit  must  be  well  floured  and  added  last,  or  it  will  sink 
to  the  bottom  of  the  loaf.  To  stone  raisins,  cover  them  with 
boiling  water.  When  they  become  soft,  squeeze  out  the 
seeds.  Cut  citron  in  thin  strips.  Nuts  may  be  chopped 
or  cut  fine  with  a  knife.  (For  the  preparation  of  currants, 
see  p.  136.) 

Directions  for  baking.  —  The  baking  is  a  most  impor- 
tant part  of  cake-making.  No  matter  how  skilfully  cake  is 
mixed,  it  will  be  spoiled  if  not  properly  baked. 

Greasing  cake  pans.  —  Grease  cake  pans  well  with  melted 
butter  or  butterine.  (P.  105.)  Pans  for  loaf-cake  may  be 
lined  with  white  paper,  and  the  paper  greased. 

The  oven.  —  The  oven  should  be  less  hot  for  cake  than 
for  bread.  It  is  right  for  butter  cakes  baked  in  loaves,  if 
it  turns  a  piece  of  writing  paper  light  brown  in  five  minutes. 
For  small  cakes  it  should  be  hotter.  Bake  sponge  cake  in 
a  moderate  oven  for  forty  to  fifty  minutes.  Butter  cake  in 
a  loaf  requires  about  one  hour ;  small  cakes  and  layer  cakes, 
about  twenty  minutes.     When  cake  is  done,  it  shrinks  from 


SUGAR  AND  SWEETS  277 

the  pan  and  a  broom  straw  run  into  it  comes  out  clean. 
Let  it  stand  three  minutes.  It  will  then  slip  out  of  the  pan 
readily.     Place  it  on  a  wire  cake-rest  or  a  clean  towel  to  cool. 

Cottage  Pudding 

Butter,  2  tb.  Milk,  f  c. 

Sugar,  ^  c.  Baking-powder,  3  to 

Egg,  1.  Flour,  1^  c. 
Salt,  i  t. 

Sift  flour,  baking-powder,  and  salt  together.     Beat  the 

egg  well,  and  beat  the  sugar  into  it.     Stir  in  the  milk  and 

the  flour  mixture  alternately  (first  a  little  of  one,  then  a 

little  of  the  other,  till  all  is  added).     Melt  the  butter,  and 

stir   it    in   last.     Bake    in    a   buttered  cake-pan  about  25 

minutes.     Serve  with  Lemon  Sauce  (p.  282)  or  other  liquid 

sauce. 

Standabd  Cake 

Butter,  I  c.  Milk,  ^  c. 

Sugar,  f  c.  Baking-powder,  2J  t. 

Eggs,  2.  Flour,  1^  c. 

Vanilla,  ^  t. 

Follow  directions  for  making  butter   cakes.     This   cake 
may  be  made  with  one  egg  and  3  t.  of  baking-powder. 

To  vary  this  cake,  add  any  one  of  the  following : 

1.  I  c.  chopped  raisins. 

2.  ^  c.  currants. 

3.  I  c.  sliced  citron. 

4.  I  c.  chopped  nuts. 

5.  4  tb.  cocoa  or  2  oz.  chocolate,  melted. 


278     THEORY  AND  PRACTICE  OF  COOKERY 

Or  instead  of  vanilla  use  one  of  these : 

6.  1 1.  lemon  extract. 

7.  ^  t.  almond  extract. 

Think  up  other  variations,  and  try  them. 

Spice  Cake 
Butter,  I  c.  Flour,  2  c. 

Brown  sugar,  1  c.  Chopped  raisins,  f  c. 

Sour  milk,  1  c.  Cinnamon,  1 1. 

Baking-soda,  1 1.  Cloves,  1 1. 

Nutmeg,  1 1. 

Cream  butter  and  sugar,  stir  in  milk;  next  dry  ingre- 
dients; lastly,  fruit. 

Gingerbread 
Butter,  2  tb.  Sour  milk,  ^  c. 

Molasses,  f  c.  Baking-soda,  1  t. 

Egg,  1.  Flour,  2  c. 

Ginger,  1  tb. 

Sift  the  flour,  soda,  and  ginger  together.  Heat  the 
molasses,  and  pour  it  upon  the  butter.  Stir  well.  Add  the 
beaten  egg,  and  sour  milk,  and  dry  ingredients.  Bake  25 
minutes  in  a  moderate  oven. 

Old-fashioned  Sponge  Cake 

Note.  —  In  the  days  when  eggs  were  cheap,  it  was  customary  to  use 
enough  eggs  in  sponge  cake  to  make  it  light  without  the  addition  of  baking- 
powder.    This  cannot  always  be  afforded  now. 

Eggs,  5.  Flour,  1^  c. 

Sugar,  gran,  or  powd.,  1^  c.  Salt,  i  t. 

Juice  and  grated  rind  of  half  a  large  lemon. 

See  directions  for  mixing  sponge  cake  on  p.  276.  Bake 
one  hour  in  a  slow  oven. 


SUGAR  AND  SWEETS  279 

Baking-powder  Sponge  Cake 

Eggs,  3.  Flour,  1^  c. 

Sugar,  1  c.  Baking-powder,  2  t. 

Hot  water,  f  c.  Vanilla,  1 1.  or 

Lemon  extract,  ^  t. 

Salt,  i  t. 

Mix  according  to  directions  for  mixing  sponge  cake,  add- 
ing the  hot  water  when  part  of  the  sugar  has  been  beaten 
into  the  yolks.  Bake  forty-five  minutes  to  one  hour  in  a 
loaf,  thirty-five  minutes  in  small  cakes. 


Sugar  Cookies 

Butter,  i  c. 

Milk,  2  tb. 

Sugar,  1  c. 

Baking-powder,  2  t. 

Egg,  1. 

Flour,  about  3  c. 

Nutmeg. 

Mix  according  to  directions  for  butter  cake,  using  enough 
flour  to  make  a  dough  stiff  enough  to  roll  out.  Turn  it  on 
to  a  floured  board.  Roll  out,  part  at  a  time,  one-eighth  of 
an  inch  thick.  Cut  out  with  a  floured  cookie  cutter.  Keep 
board  and  rolling-pin  well  floured.  Sprinkle  cookies  with 
grated  nutmeg.  Bake  15  minutes  on  baking  sheets  or 
shallow  pans. 

Whole  Wheat  Ginger  Snaps 

Butter,  I  c.  Milk,  i  c. 

Sugar,  1  c.  Baking-powder,  1  t. 

Molasses,  2  tb.  Baking-soda,  i  t. 

Egg,  1.  Flour,  about  3  c. 

Ginger,  1  tb. 

Cream  the  butter  and  sugar.  Stir  in  the  molasses,  beaten 
egg,    and   milk,  and   last,   the    other   materials    sifted    to- 


280     THEORY  AND  PRACTICE  OF  COOKERY 

gether.  Roll  as  thin  as  possible.  Cut  out  like  sugar 
cookies,  and  bake  in  a  moderate  oven. 

The  points  of  good  cake.  —  A  good  butter  cake  is  smooth 
on  top  and  an  even  golden-brown  all  over.  It  should  round 
up  slightly  in  the  middle,  but  not  sink  from  the  edges  and 
rise  sharply  with  a  crack  on  the  top.  Such  a  cake  either 
contains  too  much  flour  or  has  baked  too  fast.  The  inside 
of  the  loaf  should  be  slightly  moist,  but  not  sticky,  and  of 
a  fine,  even  grain,  with  no  heavy  streaks.  Coarse-grained 
cake  is  usually  caused  by  lack  of  beating  or  by  too  slow  an 
oven.  Sponge  cake  should  rise  in  the  oven,  and  settle  to 
a  level,  not  lower,  after  being  taken  out.  The  top  crust 
should  be  slightly  sugary,  the  texture  looser  than  that  of 
butter  cake,  but  tender  and  velvety.  Too  much  flour  makes 
sponge  cake  tough. 

Chocolate  Layer  Cake.  —  Bake  Standard  Cake  in  three 
jelly-cake  tins,  and  spread  chocolate  frosting  on  top  and 
between  the  layers. 

POINTS   TO   BE   REMEMBEEED   IN   CAKE-MAKING 

1.  Pastry  flour  makes  the  tenderest  cake,  but  bread  flour 
gives  satisfactory  results.  If  you  substitute  bread  flour  for 
pastry  flour  in  a  recipe  calling  for  the  latter,  use  but  seven- 
eighths  of  the  measure  given. 

2.  If  you  cannot  get  fine  sugar,  sift  what  you  have. 
Sponge  cake  is  better  for  having  both  flour  and  sugar  sifted 
separately  several  times. 

3.  See  that  the  fire  is  so  arranged  that  the  oven  will  be 
ready  when  the  cake  is  mixed. 


SUGAR  AND  SWEETS  281 

4.  If  very  little  butter  is  used,  melt  it  and  add  it  to  the 
sugar,  or  to  the  sugar  and  eggs.  In  cold  weather  warm 
the  bowl  slightly  with  hot  water  before  creaming  butter. 
A  teaspoonful  or  two  of  milk  may  be  added  to  the  butter 
and  sugar,  if  they  are  very  slow  to  cream. 

5.  Cake  containing  molasses  burns  easily.  Bake  such 
cake  and  any  thick  loaves  requiring  long  baking  in  tins  lined 
with  greased  paper. 

6.  If  cake  browns  within  fifteen  minutes  after  it  is  put 
into  the  oven,  the  heat  is  too  great.  Reduce  it,  or  make  a 
tent  of  brown  paper  over  the  pan,  shaped  like  this  J  |_.  A 
pan  of  water  put  into  the  oven  will  reduce  heat. 

Quick  Frosting  {Boston  School  Kitchen  Text-hook) 

Powdered  sugar,  1  c.  Boiling  water,  1  tb. 

Lemon  juice,  1  tb. 

Mix  these  ingredients,  and  add  more  boiling  water,  a 
few  drops  at  a  time,  till  the  sugar  settles  when  you  cease 
stirring.     Spread  on  cake  while  the  latter  is  hot. 

Soft  Frosting 

Granulated  sugar,  \  c.  Water,  \  c. 

White  of  1  egg.  Lemon  juice,  1|  t. 

Lemon  extract,  \  t. 

Stir  the  sugar  and  water  in  a  saucepan  till  the  syrup  boils, 
then  boil  it  without  stirring  till  it  threads.  (P.  271.)  A  little 
before  it  reaches  this  point,  beat  the  white-of-egg  stiff. 
When  the  syrup  threads,  turn  it  into  the  egg  in  a  fine  stream, 
beating  till  smooth,  but  not  thick  enough  to  drop.     Flavor, 


282     THEORY  AND  PRACTICE  OF  COOKERY 

and  pour  over  cake,  spreading  with  a  knife.  If  beaten  too 
long,  thin  with  a  few  drops  of  lemon  juice  or  boiling  water, 
and  wet  the  knife  in  cold  water. 

Chocolate  Icing  or  Filling 

Granulated  sugar,  1  c.  Unsweetened  chocolate,  2  oz. 

Water,  2  tb. 

Scrape  the  chocolate  fine,  mix  it  with  the  sugar  and  water, 
and  simmer  about  twenty  minutes,  or  till  thick  enough  to 
spread.     Spread  while  hot  on  the  cake. 

Lemon  Sauce 

Sugar  (brown  or  white),  ^  c.  Butter,  2  tb. 

Boiling  water,  1  c.  Lemon  juice,  1  tb. 

Cornstarch,  1  tb. 

Mix  the  sugar  and  cornstarch,  stir  into  them  the  boiling 
water,  and  boil  five  minutes.  Take  from  the  fire,  and  add 
butter  and  lemon  juice. 

Variations.  —  1.  Boil  the  thinly  shaved  rind  of  half  a 
lemon  in  the  water,  straining  it  out  before  adding  the  water 
to  the  sugar  and  cornstarch.  2.  Add  one  well-beaten  egg 
after  taking  the  sauce  from  the  fire. 

A  fruit  sauce  may  be  made  by  thickening  the  syrup 
from  canned  fruit  with  cornstarch.  If  no  more  sugar 
is  required,  how  will  you  keep  the  cornstarch  from  lump- 
ing? 

Hard  Sauce 

Butter,  i  c.  White  of  1  egg. 

Powdered  sugar,  1  c.  Vanilla  extract,  1  t. 

Grated  nutmeg,  1 1.,  or  |  of  a  nutmeg. 


SUGAR  AND  SWEETS  283 

Cream  butter  and  sugar,  add  the  white-of-egg  unbeaten 
and  the  vanilla,  and  beat  together  thoroughly.  Heap 
roughly  in  a  small  glass  dish,  grate  nutmeg  over  the  top, 
and  keep  cool  until  served. 

DESSERTS 

The  making  of  elaborate  desserts,  except  for  special 
occasions,  is  a  waste  of  time.  A  rich  pudding  is  unsuitable 
after  a  hearty  dinner ;  fruit  is  the  best  dessert  after  such  a 
meal.  Jellies,  custards,  creams,  and  combinations  of  these 
with  fruit,  when  a  part  of  the  meal  and  not  eaten  to  please 
the  taste  after  hunger  is  satisfied,  are  desirable  and  whole- 
some. 

Remarks  about  the  desserts  for  which  recipes  are  given. 
—  Some  dessert  dishes  have  been  given  under  other  head- 
ings. Caramel  Custard  is  a  variation  of  Cup  Custards 
(p.  92).  Bread  Puddings  are  baked  custards  thickened  with 
bread  crumbs.  They  should  be  soft,  like  custard.  In 
making  soft  custard,  use  the  same  care  that  you  have  in 
making  sauces  thickened  with  eggs.  In  using  tapioca  ^ 
or  cornstarch,  see  that  the  starch  is  thoroughly  swollen  and 
cooked.  What  reason  is  there  for  cooking  it  thoroughly  ? 
Starch  mixtures  stiffen  in  cooking ;  if  to  be  moulded,  take 
care  not  to  have  them  more  than  just  stiif  enough  to  hold 
their  shape  when  cold. 

1  Tapioca  is  made  by  heating  the  starch  obtained  from  the  roots  of  the 
manioc,  or  cassava,  a  tropical  plant. 


284     THEORY  AND  PRACTICE  OF  COOKERY 

Caramel  Custard 
Eggs,  3.  Extract  of  vanilla,  i  t. 

Sug8.r,  1^  tb.  Scalded  milk,  1  pt. 

Sugar  for  caramel,  1  c.       Water,  2  tb. 

Melt  the  sugar  for  caramel,  stirring  constantly  until  it  is 
light  brown.  Reserve  one-half  of  it.  Butter  custard  cups 
and  pour  a  little  caramel  into  each ;  tip  the  cups  so  as  to 
coat  them  with  it. 

After  beating  the  eggs  slightly,  beat  in  the  sugar,  stir  in 
the  milk  and  vanilla,  and  fill  the  cups  nearly  full.  Bake 
like  cup  custards,  and  when  cold  turn  them  out,  one  on  each 
serving  plate.     Serve  with  cold  Caramel  Sauce. 

Another  method.  —  Omit  the  one  and  a  half  tablespoon- 
fuls  of  sugar,  and  mix  the  caramel  into  the  custard  instead 
of  pouring  it  into  the  cups. 

To  make  Caramel  Sauce,  add  to  the  caramel  reserved  half 
a  cup  of  boiling  water,  and  keep  it  hot  till  the  caramel 
dissolves.  If  the  water  is  not  boiling,  the  caramel  will 
spatter. 

Plain  Bread  Pudding 
Milk,  1  qt.  Salt,  J  t. 

Sugar,  ^  c.  Bread  crumbs,  2  c. 

Eggs,  2.  Spice,  i  t. 

(If  to  be  eaten  without  sauce,  add  2  or  3  t.  melted  butter.) 

Soak  the  bread  in  the  milk.  Beat  the  eggs  slightly. 
Beat  into  them  the  sugar.  When  the  crumbs  become  soft, 
add  eggs  and  sugar,  spice,  and  salt,  and  mix  thoroughly. 
Turn  into  a  buttered  dish.  Bake  until  a  knife  inserted  in 
the  pudding  comes  out  clean. 


SUGAR  AND  SWEETS  285 

Variations  of  Bread  Pudding.  —  1.  Add  one  cupful  of 
boiled  raisins,  citron,  and  currants  mixed. 

2.  Separate  the  eggs,  add  only  the  yolks  to  the  pudding. 
Beat  the  whites  stiff ;  beat  into  them  two  and  a  half  tahle- 
spoonfuls  of  powdered  sugar;  spread  them  roughly  over  the 
pudding ;  and  return  it  to  the  oven  for  two  minutes,  or  till  a 
delicate  brown. 

3.  Queen  of  puddings.  —  Like  variation  2,  except  omit 
spice,  flavor  with  one  and  a  half  taUespoonfuls  of  lemon  juice 
and  spread  it  over  with  jam  or  jelly  before  covering  it  with 
meringue. 

Plain  Soft  Custard 

Scalded  milk,  2  c.  Sugar,  4  tb. 

Egg-yolks,i  3.  Salt,  i  t. 

Vanilla,  ^  t. 

Beat  the  eggs  slightly,  beat  into  them  the  sugar  and  salt, 
and  stir  in  slowly  the  hot  milk.  Pour  into  a  double  boiler, 
and  cook,  stirring  constantly,  until  the  custard  is  thick 
enough  to  coat  the  spoon.  Strain  at  once  through  a  fine 
strainer  into  a  cold  pitcher.  When  cool  stir  in  the  vanilla, 
and  pour  into  a  glass  dish  or  glass  custard  cups  for  serving. 

//  the  custard  cooks  a  moment  too  long,  it  will  curdle. 
It  is  safer  to  take  it  from  the  fire  before  you  think  it  quite 
done,  as  the  heat  of  the  boiler  cooks  it  even  while  it  is  being 
turned  out.     If  it  begins  to  curdle,  set  the  upper  part  of  the 

1  Whole  eggs  may  be  used,  but  they  do  not  make  so  smooth  a  custard. 
When  eggs  are  expensive,  two  yolks  may  be  used  instead  of  three,  if  half 
a  tablespoonful  of  cornstarch  is  added.  Mix  the  cornstarch  with  a  table- 
spoonful  of  the  cold  milk  and  stir  it  into  the  rest. 


286     THEORY  AND  PRACTICE  OF  COOKERY 

boiler  immediately  into  a  pan  of  cold  water,  and  beat  the 
custard  energetically  with  a  Dover  egg-beater  till  smooth. 

Apple  Tapioca 

Pearl  or  granulated  tapioca,  4  tb.        Sugar,  ^  c. 

Tart  apples,  6.  Cinnamon  or  nutmeg,  J  t. 

Boiling  water,  1  pt.  Salt,  a  f.g. 

Soak  the  tapioca  overnight  in  one  cupful  of  cold  water. 
Core  and  pare  the  apples,  slice  one  of  them,  and  cook  it 
with  the  tapioca  in  the  boiling  water  till  the  latter  is  trans- 
lucent. Place  the  rest  of  the  apples  upright  in  a  buttered 
baking-dish,  sprinkle  over  them  the*  sugar  and  spice,  pour 
over  them  the  tapioca  mixture,  and  bake  till  they  are  tender. 
Serve  with  sugar  and  cream. 

Cornstarch  Meringue 

Milk,  1  qt.  Granulated  sugar,  }  c.       • 

Cornstarch,  I  c.  Vanilla  extract,  1  t. 

Eggs,  2.  Powdered  sugar,  6  tb. 

Scald  the  milk  in  a  double  boiler,  and  stir  into  it  the  corn- 
starch just  moistened  with  cold  water.  Cook  directly  over 
the  heat  till  it  comes  to  the  boiling-point ;  then  remove  at 
once.  Separate  the  eggs  ;  beat  the  yolks  slightly  by  them- 
selves, then  with  the  granulated  sugar ;  stir  these  into  the 
thickened  milk ;  cook  all  together  for  one  minute ;  add  the 
vanilla  ;  and  pour  into  a  baking-dish. 

For  the  meringue.  —  Beat  the  whites  till  frothy,  add  the 
powdered  sugar,  and  beat  again.  When  stiff  enough  to  hold 
its  shape,  spread  the  meringue  over  the  pudding,  heaping  it 


SUGAR  AND  SWEETS  287 

in  the  middle,  sprinkle  with  powdered  sugar,  and  brown 
slightly  in  a  warm  oven.     Serve  cold. 

Creamy  Rice  Pudding 

Milk,  1  qt.  Sugar,  |  c. 

Rice,  ^  c.  Grated  nutmeg,  f.g. 

Salt,  i  t. 

Wash  the  rice  (p.  75).  Mix  the  ingredients  in  a  pud- 
ding-dish and  bake  for  three  or  four  hours,  stirring  in  the 
brown  crust  as  it  forms.  Or  cook  for  one  hour  on  top  of 
the  stove  and  for  one  hour  in  the  oven.     Serve  cold. 

Half  a  cupful  of  raisins  may  be  cooked  in  this  pudding. 

Section  3.    Ice-cream  and  Water-ices 

In  summer  no  other  dessert  is  so  welcome  as  ice-cream. 
With  bread  and  butter,  it  is  a  sufficient  lunch  on  a  hot  day. 

Ice  and  salt  form  a  freezing  mixture.  —  When  ice  and  salt 
are  mixed,  a  double  action  takes  place :  the  salt  makes  the 
ice  melt,  and  the  melting  ice  dissolves  the  salt.  We  have 
already  observed  that  heat  is  used  up  in  changing  matter 
from  the  sohd  to  the  Hquid  form  (pp.  27  and  55).  Melting 
ice  and  salt  reach  a  temperature  below  the  freezing-point 
of  water.  If  we  pack  them  around  some  other  liquid,  they 
draw  the  heat  from  it  so  fast  that  it  freezes.  This  is  why 
we  use  a  mixture  of  salt  and  ice  to  freeze  ice-cream. 

Experiment.  —  Fill  a  cup  with  cracked  ice ;  take  the  temperature 
of  the  ice  with  a  thermometer.  How  cold  is  the  ice?  Mix  four  table- 
spoonfuls  of  ice-cream  salt  with  the  ice,  and  watch  the  thermometer. 
When  the  mercury  stops  faUing,  see  what  degree  of  cold  it  registers. 


288  THEORY  AND  PRACTICE  OF  COOKERY 

DIRECTIONS   FOR   FREEZING   CREAM 

Making  ready.  —  Put  the  ice  into  a  strong  canvas  bag, 
or  wrap  it  in  a  piece  of  stout  cloth,  and  pound  it  fine.  Use 
ice-cream  salt ;  fine  salt  will  not  do.  Scald  can,  dasher,  and 
cover.  Fit  the  can  into  the  socket  in  the  pail,  pour  in  the 
mixture  to  be  frozen,  put  on  the  cover,  adjust  the  cover  to 
the  cross-piece,  and  turn  the  crank  to  make  sure  that  all  is  in 
working  order. 

Packing.  —  Fill  the  space  between  the  can  and  the  pail 
with  alternate  layers  of  ice  and  salt,  putting  in  three  measures 
of  ice,  then  one  of  salt.  The  ice  and  salt  should  come  a 
little  above  the  height  at  which  the  cream  will  stand  in  the 
can.  As  the  mixture  expands  in  freezing,  fill  the  can  not 
more  than  three-fourths  full.  Pack  ice  and  salt  solidly, 
turning  the  crank  a  few  times  to  let  the  mixture  settle. 

Freezing.  —  Turn  the  crank  slowly  and  steadily  until  the 
cream  is  rather  stiff,  then  turn  more  rapidly.  Do  not  draw 
off  the  water  unless  it  stands  so  high  that  there  is  danger  of 
its  getting  into  the  can.  The  cream  should  take  about 
twenty  minutes  to  freeze.  Cream  frozen  too  rapidly,  or  not 
well  stirred,  is  coarse-grained. 

When  the  dasher  turns  very  hard,  the  cream  is  sufficiently 
frozen.  Remove  the  crank,  wipe  the  outside  of  the  cover 
and  the  upper  part  of  the  can  (to  avoid  letting  in  any  salt 
water),  and  take  off  the  cover.  Take  out  the  dasher. 
Scrape  the  cream  from  the  dasher  and  from  the  sides  of  the 
can,  and  pack  it  down  level.  Put  a  cork  into  the  hole  in  the 
cover,  and  replace  it.     Draw  off  the  salt  water,  repack  with 


SUGAR  AND  SWEETS  289 

ice  and  salt,  and  cover  with  an  old  blanket  or  a  piece  of 
carpet.  Let  the  cream  stand  in  the  freezer  at  least  one  hour, 
two,  if  possible,  to  ^'  ripen  ''  before  serving.  This  greatly 
improves  its  flavor. 

Water-ices.  —  Freeze  water-ices  like  cream,  except  that 
the  crank  need  not  be  turned  constantly.  A  few  turns  every 
five  minutes  is  enough. 

How  to  make  ice-cream  without  a  freezer.  —  Ice-cream 
can  be  made  in  a  tin  pail  packed  in  a  wooden  pail.  Whirl 
the  pail  round  by  its  handle,  taking  off  the  cover  occasionally 
to  scrape  down  and  beat  the  cream.  A  small  quantity  can 
be  made  in  a  baking-powder  can  set  into  a  pail  or  saucepan. 
Before  using  the  can,  fill  it  with  water  to  see  if  it  leaks.  Most 
cans  require  soldering.  A  tinman  will  do  it  cheaply,  or  you 
can  get  a  stick  of  solder  and  do  it  yourself. 

Plain  Ice-cream  (French  Ice-cream) 
By  varying  the  flavor  this  cream  may  be  used  as  the  foun- 
dation for  any  kind  of  ice-cream.     It  may  be  made  with 
three  eggs  and  no  cream,  but  even  half  a  cupful  of  cream  is 
a  great  improvement. 

Milk,  1  pt.  Flour,  1  tb. 

Sugar,  f  c.  Thin  cream,  1  pt. 

Eggs,  2. 

Scald  the  milk,  mix  the  sugar,  flour,  and  eggs  together, 
and  make  a  custard  according  to  the  directions  for  making 
Soft  Custard  (p.  285).  When  cold,  stir  the  cream  and  fla- 
voring into  it,  and  freeze.  Fruit  must  not  be  added  until 
the  cream  is  about  half-frozen. 


290     THEORY  AND  PRACTICE  OF  COOKERY 

Flavorings.  —  Vanilla  Cream.     Add  one  tablespoonful  of 

vanilla,  just  before  freezing.  —  Chocolate  Ice-cream.     Add 

two  ounces  of  unsweetened  chocolate,  melted,  or  one-fourth 

cupful  of  cocoa,  and  an  extra  one-half  cup  of  sugar  to  the 

custard  and  cook  until  smooth.  —  Strawberry  Ice-cream. 

Add  one  box  of  berries,  crushed,  and  an  extra  cup  of  sugar.  — 

Peach  Ice-cream.     Add  one  quart  of  peaches,  pared  and 

mashed,  and  from  one-half   to   three-fourths  of  a  cup  of 

sugar. 

American  Ice-cream 

Thin  cream,  1  qt.  Sugar,  f  c. 

Vanilla,  1  tb. 

Mix  the  ingredients  and  freeze.  This  ice-cream  may  be 
varied,  as  plain  ice-cream  is,  by  using  other  flavoring,  or 
crushed  fruit,  or  fruit-juice. 

Instead  of  one  quart  of  thin  cream,  one  pint  of  thick 
cream  and  one  pint  of  milk  may  be  used. 

Junket  Ice-cream 


Lukewarm  milk,  1  qt. 

Sugar,  1  c. 

Cold  water,  1  tb. 

Junket  (rennet)  tablet,  1.. 
Thick  cream,  1  pt.  Vanilla,  2  tb. 

or  or 

Thin  cream,  1  qt.  Crushed  and  sweetened  fruit. 


To  be  made  into  junket  ac- 
cording to  the  recipe  on 
p.  98. 


Make  the  junket.  When  it  has  set,  stir  in  the  cream,  and 
flavoring  or  fruit,  and  freeze. 

Junket  gives  the  ice-cream  more  body  than  could  other- 
wise be  obtained  without  using  more  cream.  (What  is  the 
effect  of  rennet  on  milk  ?) 


SUGAR  AND  SWEETS  291 

Lemon  Ice 
Lemons,  4  large  ones.  Sugar,  1^  lb. 

Oranges,  1.  Water,  1  qt. 

Make  a  syrup  of  the  sugar  and  water  by  boiling  them 
together  five  minutes.  Add  the  grated  rind  of  the  orange 
and  of  one  lemon.  Add  the  juice  of  the  orange  and  lemons. 
When  the  syrup  is  cool,  strain  and  freeze. 

For  sherbet,  add  the  beaten  white  of  an  egg.  Sherbet 
does  not  melt  so  fast  as  water-ice  does. 

Section  4.     Pastry  —  Pies 
Review  Biscuit,  p.  105,  and  Chap.  7,  Fats  and  Oils. 

Tender,  crisp  pastry  is  more  easily  digestible  than  that 
which  is  tough  or  soggy. 

To  make  pastry  flaky  all  the  ingredients  must  be  kept 
cold,  and  the  paste  must  be  handled  Hghtly  and  rapidly 
at  every  stage. 

The  following  recipe  makes  pastry  for  one  upper  and  one 
under  crust.  The  fat  may  be  butter,  lard,  a  substitute  for 
butter  or  lard,  or  two  of  these. 


Flour,  1^  c.         Fat, 


Pastry 


Salt,  J  t.  Cold  water  (ice-water,  if  possible),  about  3  tb. 

Mix  flour  and  salt.  Cut  in  the  fat  with  a  fork.  Add  water 
till  the  mass  just  holds  together.  Roll  out,  with  light  strokes 
forward  and  to  right  and  left.  Pat  gently  with  the  rolling- 
pin.  Do  not  bear  down  or  roll  backward  and  forward. 
Try  to  keep  paste  rectangular.  ^AHien  about  half  an  inch 
thick,  fold  the  right-hand  third  over,  then  the  left-hand  third. 


292     THEORY  AND  PRACTICE  OF  COOKERY 

The  paste  is  now  in  three  layers. 

Roll  out  again.  Lift  the  edge  nearest  you  and  roll  the 
paste  up.  If  it  sticks  at  any  time,  free  it  with  a  floured  knife 
and  sprinkle  flour  under  it.  If  it  is  not  to  be  used  at  once, 
wrap  it  in  a  damp  cloth  and  put  it  in  a  cold  place. 

A  plainer  pastry  may  be  made  with  less  shortening  and 
the  addition  of  IJ  t.  baking-powder. 

Apple  Pie  (with  upper  crust  only) 

Fill  enamelled  pie-plate  one  inch  or  more  deep,  rounding 
full  of  sliced  apples.  Sprinkle  with  sugar  (about  one-half 
cup  for  moderately  tart  apples)  and  with  nutmeg  or  cinna- 
mon. Add,  if  you  like,  one  teaspoonful  of  lemon  juice  and 
one  of  butter,  cut  into  bits.  Invert  a  small  cup  in  the 
centre  to  hold  up  the  crust. 

Cut  off  a  little  less  than  half  of  the  roll  of  pastry.  Place 
cut  end  up.  Roll  it  out  into  a  sheet  as  nearly  circular  as 
possible  and  about  one  inch  and  a  half  greater  in  width  than 
the  top  of  the  pie-plate.  It  should  be  about  one-eighth  of  an 
inch  thick.  Double  it.  Make  a  few  cuts  along  the  doubled 
edge  to  let  out  steam.  Lay  the  doubled  pastry  on  one-half  of 
the  pie.  Unfold  it.  Turn  the  edges  under  and  press  them 
down.  Trim  edges  to  within  three-fourths  of  an  inch  of  the 
plate.  Bake  until  the  crust  is  a  delicate  brown,  about  35 
minutes. 

Peach,  rhubarb,  and  other  fruit  pies  may  be  made  in  the 
same  way,  except  that  spice  is  not  used,  and  the  quantity 
of  sugar  must  be  varied  according  to  the  acidity  of  the  fruit. 

When  using  lemon,    cream,   custard,   or   similar   filling. 


SUGAR  AND  SWEETS  293 

bake  the  under  crust  first  by  itself.     If  crust  and  filling  are 

cooked  together,  the  crust  will  not  bake  crisp  enough  to  be 

wholesome. 

Lemon  Pie  (with  under  crust  only) 

Line  pie-plate  with  pastry  rolled  out  as  directed  above. 
Fit  it  in  easily.  Do  not  stretch  it.  Trim  close  to  plate, 
slanting  knife  outward.  Prick  it  with  a  fork  and  bake. 
Watch  for  blisters  which  form  during  baking  and  prick  them 

before  they  harden. 

Filling 
Sugar,  f  c.  Butter,  1 1. 

Cornstarch,  2  tb.  Yolks  of  2  eggs,  beaten. 

Flour,  2  tb.  Lemon  juice,  3  tb. 

Boiling  water,  f  c.  Grated  rind  of  1  lemon. 

Meringue 
Whites  of  2  eggs.  Powdered  sugar,  2  tb. 

Lemon  juice,  1  tb. 

Mix  the  sugar,  cornstarch,  and  flour.  Stir  in  the  boiling 
water  gradually.  Cook  till  thick,  stirring.  Stir  in  the  other 
ingredients  and  let  mixture  cool.  When  the  crust  is  baked, 
turn  the  mixture  into  it.  Spread  the  meringue  over  the  top 
and  return  to  the  oven  until  the  meringue  is  slightly  brown. 

Pie  Made  with  Two  Crusts 
Line  a  pie-plate  with  pastry  as  directed  above.     Put  in 
the  filling.     Moisten  the  rim  of  the  pastry  with  cold  water. 
Put  on  the  top  crust.     Press  the  edges  together  and  trim. 

Brief  Reference  List 
For  further  development  of  topics  treated  in  this  chapter 

see:  — 

Farmer  :  Boston  Cooking-school  Cook  Book. 


CHAPTER  X 

THE  PRESERVATION  OF  FOOD 

Section  1.    Microorganisms  in  Relation  to  Food 

Vast  hordes  of  tiny  toilers  are  working  in  our  service  night  and  day  to 
keep  the  world  wholesome  and  all  the  races  of  beings  supplied  with  life- 
stuff.  —  T.  M.  Prudden. 

We  have  learned  that  mould;  yeast,  and  bacterid  are  micro- 
scopic plants  (pp.  30;  128).  Collectively  they  are  called 
microorganisms  (meaning  little  live  things).  How  does 
yeast  make  bread  light  ?  How  do  bacteria  make  milk  sour  ? 
Under  what  conditions  does  mould  grow  best  ? 

Yeast  causes  fermentation.  Some  bacteria  cause  fer- 
mentation, but  more  cause  that  unpleasant  kind  of  decom- 
position called  putrefaction.  Carbohydrate  foods  tend  to 
ferment ;  protein  foods  tend  to  putrefy.  In  foods  contain- 
ing both  carbohydrate  and  protein,  whichever  process 
starts  first  is  likely  to  prevent  or  to  check  the  other.  The 
enzyms  (p.  131)  which  exist  in  most  foods  also  tend  to  de- 
compose them. 

A  STUDY  OF  bacteria 

Experiment  in  growing  bacteria.  —  Expose  a  little  clear,  cool  soup- 
stock  to  the  air  for  a  few  minutes;  then  cover  it  with  a  piece  of  clean 
glass,  set  it  aside  in  a  rather  warm  place,  and  look  at  it  every  day.    What 

294 


THE  PRESERVATION  OF  FOOD 


295 


happens  to  it?    How  does  it  smell  after  a  few  days?    What  do  we  say 
has  happened  to  it  ? 

If  we  should  examine  a  speck  from  one  of  the  cloudy  spots  on  soup- 
stock,  under  a  microscope,  we  should  see  many  bacteria. 

Bacteria  compared  with  yeast.  —  Bacteria  are  single-celled 
forms  of  plant-life,  like  yeast;    and,  like  it,  they  multiply 
^^^  when  they  have  warmth 

and    food    and    moisture. 
They  exist  in  far  greater 
numbers  than  yeasts   do, 
QD  •        ^w^^^     "^        however,  swarming  in  the 


OO 


<^=:^ 


%oo 


cPOo 


Fig.  15.  —  Shapes  and  groupings  of 
different  kinds  of  bacteria  (much  en- 
larged). 


Fig.  16.  —  Bacteria  causing  ty- 
phoid fever,  as  seen  under  the 
microscope. 


air,  in  water,  in  the  ground.  Some  are  shaped  like  lead- 
pencils,  others  like  eggs  or  billiard-balls,  and  still  others  like 
corkscrews.  One  kind  is  so  small  that  fifteen  hundred  in 
a  row  would  hardly  reach  across  the  head  of  a  pin. 

The  life-history  of  bacteria.  —  Bacteria  multiply  by 
dividing  themselves  in  two,  repeating  this  process  so  fre- 
quently that  were  there  food  and  room  enough  for  them  all, 
the  world  would  soon  be  crowded  with  them.     But  they 


296     THEORY  AND  PRACTICE  OF  COOKERY 

die  by  millions  constantly,  one  kind  overcoming  another, 
while  all  kinds  are  destroyed  by  the  occurrence  of  conditions 
unfavorable  to  life.  Some  kinds  of  bacteria  form  spores 
(p.  128).  Spore-formation  corresponds  in  a  way  to  the  going 
to  seed  of  bigger  plants,  when  winter  comes  on.  Spores  are 
usually  very  hard  to  kill.  They  seem  able  to  last  forever, 
ready  to  spring  into  activity  when  right  conditions  return. 

Many  kinds  of  bacteria  are  harmless.  Some  are  useful. 
Even  those  that  are  troublesome  when  they  attack  the  food 
we  want  to  keep  do  good  when  they  decompose  such  things 
as  the  dead  bodies  of  animals,  dead  plants  and  leaves,  manure 
and  other  waste.  They  feed  upon  these,  and  break  them 
down  into  inorganic  substances  suitable  to  be  taken  up  by 
plants  and  again  built  into  living  matter,  perhaps  to  become 
food  for  animals  and  men.  Thus  bacteria  form  an  invisible 
link  between  the  soil  and  ourselves,  a  link  essential  to  life 
on  the  earth. 

Ways  of  preserving  food.  —  Conditions  favorable  to  the 
growth  of  yeast  being,  in  general,  favorable  to  the  growth 
of  bacteria  and  mould,^  the  way  to  keep  all  microorganisms 
from  destroying  food  is  to  provide  conditions  just  the  oppo- 
site of  those  we  provide  for  yeast  in  bread-dough.  We 
may  keep  the  food  very  cold,  make  it  very  hot,  dry  it,  or 
since  we  cannot  take  out  of  it  the  food  microorganisms  live 
on,  put  into  it  something  to  kill  them  or  at  least  to  check 
their  growth.  (See  disinfectant,  p. 30.)  Any  substance  used 
in  food  for  this  purpose  is  called  a  preservative.  Salt,  vinegar, 
alcohol,  spice,  and  sugar  (in  large  quantities)  have  long  been 

1  Except  that  yeasts  and  moulds  require  air,  and  many  bacteria  do  not. 


THE  PRESERVATION  OF  FOOD  297 

used  as  preservatives.  Would  a  little  sugar  hinder  or  favor 
the  growth  of  yeast  ?  Is  alcohol  a  desirable  preservative  ? 
(See  p.  144.)  Wood-smoke  deposits  substances  which  have  a 
preservative  effect.  What  foods  are  smoked  ?  All  chemical 
preservatives,  including  benzoate  of  soda  and  ^^  canning- 
powders,"  are  objectionable,  even  in  small  quantities.  There 
is  no  need  of  them  in  food  fit  to  eat,  and  they  should  not 
be  used  to  conceal  the  condition  of  unfit  food.  Meat, 
fish,  poultry,  eggs,  butter,  and  fruit  may  be  kept  for 
months  in  cold  storage.  They  undergo  some  change,  how- 
ever, and  are  likely  to  spoil  quickly  when  taken  out. 

The  most  effective  way  to  keep  food  is  to  sterilize  it ;  that 
is,  to  cook  it  enough  to  free  it  from  all  living  microorgan- 
isms. If  we  do  this  and  then  seal  it  up  so  that  no  more  can 
get  in,  it  will  keep  indefinitely.     This  is  done  in  canning. 

Brief  Reference  List 

For  further  development  of  topics  treated  in  this  section 
see :  — 

Buchanan  :  Household  bacteriology.    Ch.  2-9  inclusive,  23,  and  25,  pp. 

223-228 ;  ch.  24,  Alcoholic  fermentation  of  fruit  juices. 
Elliott:  Household  bacteriology.     Pp.  47-55  and  68-74. 
Prudden  :  Story  of  the  bacteria. 
Conn  :  Bacteria,   yeasts,   and  molds  in  the  home.     (Especially   ch.    10, 

Preservation  of  food;    11,   Preservatives,   and  12,  Preservation  by 

canning.     For  experiments  see  pp.  271,  276,  280.) 
Greer  :  Food  —  what  it  is  and  does.     (Functions  of  bacteria.     Nitrogen 

and  carbon  cycles  in  nature,  pp.  72-74.) 
U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agriculture  :   Farmers'  bulletin :    375.  Care  of  food  in 

the  home. 


298  THEORY  AND  PRACTICE  OF  COOKERY 

Section  2.    Canning 

Review  composition  and  food  value  of  fruits,  p.  229 ;  fruits  must  be 
clean,  p.  231 ;  and  text  on  Sugar,  Chap.  9,  Sec.  1. 

Fruit  and  tomatoes  are  the  easiest  foods  to  can  because 
they  are  the  easiest  to  sterilize.  The  reasons  for  this  are  three. 
1.  They  are  attacked  chiefly  by  yeasts,  and  by  bacteria 
which  do  not  bear  spores,  both  of  which  are  quickly  killed 
by  boiling.  2.  They  are  acid,  and  hot  acid  helps  to  kill 
microorganisms.  3.  They  are  readily  penetrated  by  heat. 
Our  aim  in  canning  is  to  sterilize  the  fruit  without  injuring 
its  appearance  and  flavor. 

One  secret  of  success  in  canning  is  cleanliness.  Cleanli- 
ness means  fewer  microorganisms  to  be  killed.  For  this 
reason,  keep  the  room  as  free  as  possible  from  dust ;  keep 
the  table,  your  hands,  and  your  clothes  clean  while  you  work ; 
and  wash  all  the  utensils  just  before  beginning  work,  rinse 
them  with  boiling  water,  and  let  them  dry  without  wiping. 
Dish-towels  are  not  sterile. 

To  sterilize  jars.  —  Put  the  jars  in  a  pan  or  pail,  cover 
with  cold  water,  let  it  come  to  a  boil  and  boil  for  ten  minutes. 
This  is  an  extra  precaution,  not  necessary  except  when  fruit 
is  cooked  before  being  put  into  jars.  When  it  is  done,  covers 
and  rings  should  be  sterilized  in  a  smaller  vessel  in  the 
same  way. 

To  test  a  jar.  —  Fill  a  jar  with  water,  fasten  on  ring  and 
cover,  and  invert.  If  it  leaks,  either  the  jar  is  imperfect 
or  the  rubber  poor.  Use  no  jar  that  cannot  be  made  ab- 
solutely tight. 


PLATE   XIV. 


Utensils  used  in  Canning. 


Sealing  Fruit  Jars. 


THE  PRESERVATION  OF  FOOD  299 

The  right  sort  of  fruit  to  can.  —  Can  each  fruit  in  its  season 
when  it  is  best  and  cheapest.  It  is  best  for  canning  just 
before  it  is  quite  ripe.  The  better  the  condition  of  the  fruit 
the  easier  it  is  to  steriHze.  So  use  only  fresh,  clean,  sound 
fruit,  and  see  that  no  soft  berries  or  spoiled  bits  get  into  the 
cans. 

Preparing  the  fruit.  —  Wash  all  fruit.  Hull  berries. 
Take  out  stems  and  trash.  Peel  or  pare  large  fruits.  Pour 
hot  water  over  peaches  and  tomatoes  to  loosen  the  skin. 
Core  and  quarter  apples  and  quinces.  Quarter  large 
tomatoes.  Can  small  ones  whole.  Peaches  may  either 
be  canned  whole,  or  halved  and  stoned.  Halves  pack 
better.  A  few  peach  stones  canned  with  them  improves 
the  flavor.  Stoned  cherries  pack  closer  than  whole  ones  and 
can  be  sterilized  quicker.  Prick  whole  cherries  and  plums. 
If  peeled  fruits  are  not  to  be  put  in  jars  at  once,  drop  them 
into  water  made  slightly  acid  with  lemon-juice  or  vinegar. 

Sterilizing  the  fruit  in  the  jars  in  a  closed  vessel  has  these 
advantages.  —  It  is  the  simplest  method.  It  best  retains 
the  flavor  of  the  fruit.  It  avoids  exposing  the  fruit  after 
it  has  been  sterilized. 

This  method  requires  the  following  outfit :  a  wash  boiler, 
pail,  or  any  vessel  with  a  tight-fitting  cover,  large  enough  to 
hold  several  cans ;  a  rack  to  fit  the  bottom  of  the  boiler  and 
keep  the  jars  from  bumping  and  breaking  when  the  water 
boils  (this  may  be  a  piece  of  heavy  wire  netting  or  it  may 
be  made  at  home  of  strips  of  wood) ;  quart  or  pint  glass 
jars  (the  jars  with  glass  covers  and  metal  springs  are 
best)  ;    a  new  rubber  ring  for  each  jar  (old  rubber  may 


300     THEORY  AND  PRACTICE  OF  COOKERY 

not  be  air-tight) ;  large  bowl  or  enamelled  pan  for  fruit ; 
plated  knife  and  fork ;  plated  or  enamelled  spoon ;  quart 
measure;  half-pint  measure;  scales;  saucepan  for  syrup. 
Avoid  iron  and  tinware  in  canning. 

Addition  of  sugar  and  water  to  fruit.  —  Fruit  to  be  used 
for  cooking  may  be  canned  without  sugar.  If  to  be  used  for 
sauce,  it  is  best  to  sweeten  it  when  it  is  canned.  The  sugar 
should  be  proportioned  to  the  acidity  of  the  fruit.  The 
easiest  way  to  do  this  is  to  dissolve  the  right  amount  for 
each  jar  (usually  from  two  to  four  ounces  for  a  pint  jar)  in 
hot  water  and  pour  it  in,  filling  up  the  j  ar  with  more  hot  water 
if  necessary.  The  water  should  be  proportioned  to  the 
juiciness  of  the  fruit.  This  regulates  itself  fairly  well,  as 
in  general  the  juiciest  fruits  are  the  small  ones  that  pack 
close  and  leave  little  space  for  liquid.  The  sugar  may  be 
made  into  a  syrup.  For  a  light  syrup,  use  one-half  pound  of 
sugar  to  one  quart  of  water.  Boil  together  until  the  sugar 
is  dissolved.  If  a  scum  rises,  remove  it.  A  sweeter  syrup 
may  be  used  for  more  acid  fruits  and  for  small  fruits  which 
leave  little  space  for  syrup.  It  may  be  necessary  to  find  by 
trial  how  much  syrup  one  can  of  fruit  will  hold  before  de- 
termining the  proportions  of  sugar  and  water. 

Add  salt  to  vegetables,  using  one-fourth  to  one-half 
teaspoonful  to  a  pint  jar,  and  fill  up  with  cold  water. 

Time  required  for  sterilization.  —  If  packed  in  quart  jars, 
sterilize  berries  from  ten  to  twenty  minutes,  other  small 
fruits  and  cut-up  fruits  for  twenty-five,  pears  and  whole 
peaches  for  thirty,  quinces  for  one  hour  or  more,  according 
to  size  of  pieces,  tomatoes  fifteen  to  twenty  minutes.     The 


THE  PRESERVATION  OF  FOOD  301 

time  for  quinces  may  be  shortened  and  the  quinces  im- 
proved by  cooking  them  for  ten  or  fifteen  minutes  before 
putting  them  in  the  jars.  For  fruit  in  pint  cans,  only 
two-thirds  as  much  time  is  required.^  The  water  must  boil 
every  minute. 

Directions  for  canning.  —  Pack  fruit  compactly  in  jars. 
To  make  it  pack  better,  it  may  be  put  in  a  strainer  or  piece 
of  cheesecloth  and  lowered  into  boiling  water  for  about  one 
minute.  This  is  called  "  blanching. ''  Blanch  fruit  in  small 
lots,  that  the  water  may  not  be  cooled  much.  Press  fruit 
gently  down  in  jars  with  spoon  or  small  wooden  spatula. 
Fill  jars  with  syrup.  Release  any  air-bubbles  by  slipping 
knife  or  spatula  down  between  fruit  and  jar.  Put  on  rings 
and  cover  without  fastening  them  down.  Place  jars  on  rack 
in  boiler.  Pour  in  cold  or  warm  water  (warm  saves  time) 
to  a  depth  of  two  or  three  inches.  Put  on  the  boiler  cover. 
Bring  water  to  a  boil  and  boil  as  long  as  required.  Remove 
from  the  heat,  fasten  down  covers,  take  jars  out,  and  let 
them  cool  as  quickly  as  possible.  Letting  them  cool  down 
slowly  in  the  water  softens  the  fruit  and  makes  the  juice 
cloudy.  If,  when  sterilization  is  complete,  there  is  more  than 
half  an  inch  of  space  between  fruit  and  cover,  the  contents  of 
one  jar  may  be  used  to  fill  the  rest  before  the  covers  are 
fastened  down.  Five  minutes  more  boiling  is  then  required. 
This  is  troublesome  and  is  unnecessary  if  jars  have  been 
properly  packed. 

1  These  directions  apply  to  fruit  bought  in  towns  and  cities.  Less  time 
is  required  for  fruit  freshly  picked.  Ten  minutes  for  quart  jars,  five 
minutes  for  pint  jars  of  freshly  picked  berries  is  sufficient.  The  shorter  the 
time  of  sterilization  the  better  the  berries  retain  their  flavor,  shape,  and  color. 


302     THEORY  AND  PRACTICE  OF  COOKERY 

A  steamer  may  be  used  instead  of  a  boiler  to  sterilize 
fruit  in  jars.  Or  the  jars  may  be  set  in  a  pan  of  water  or 
on  a  sheet  of  asbestos  in  the  oven.  The  oven  method 
shrinks  the  fruit  more  and  takes  more  fuel. 

The  kettle  method  of  canning.  —  Cook  the  fruit  in  the 
syrup  in  an  enamelled  kettle  until  it  is  tender.  Take  jars, 
rings,  and  rubbers  as  you  need  them  from  hot  water  in  which 
they  have  been  sterilized.  While  filling  the  jar  let  it  stand 
on  a  hot  wet  cloth.  Transfer  the  fruit  quickly  from  kettle 
to  jar,  using  a  wide-mouthed  funnel  and  a  dipper  or  large 
spoon.  Fill  jar  to  overflowing  with  syrup.  Put  on  ring 
and  cover  and  fasten  cover  down.     Wipe  off  jar. 

Strawberries  may  be  canned  to  advantage  by  this  method 
without  the  addition  of  water,  which  they  do  not  need. 
Hard  fruits  such  as  quinces  and  pineapples  should  be 
cooked  in  clear  water  before  sugar  is  added. 

Canning  foods  other  than  fruit.  —  Meat,  fish,  and  many 
vegetables,  notably  corn  and  beans,  are  hard  to  sterilize 
because  they  contain  spore-bearing  bacteria  and  are  not  acid. 
In  factories,  these  and  many  other  foods  are  canned  by  steam 
under  pressure.  Vegetables  may  be  canned  at  home  by  boil- 
ing them  several  times,  generally  on  three  successive  days, 
to  kill  spores  which  have  developed  after  previous  boilings. 
This  method  is  called  intermittent  sterihzation.  Canning 
outfits,  some  for  steaming  under  pressure,  are  made  for  home 
use  in  the  country.  It  does  not  pay  city-people  to  buy  vege- 
tables to  can.    They  cost  too  much  and  are  not  fresh  enough. 

Directions  for  canning  string  beans.  —  If  fresh  from  the 
garden  and  tender,  these  may  be  canned  like  fruit.     Wash 


THE  PRESERVATION  OF  FOOD  303 

and  string  them,  and  break  them  into  short  pieces.  Blanch 
from  five  to  ten  minutes,  removing  them  when  soft  enough 
to  bend  without  breaking.  Pack  in  jars,  fill  with  cold  water, 
and  add  one  teaspoonful  of  salt  to  a  quart  jar.  Boil  quart 
jars  one  hour.  If  beans  are  not  freshly  picked,  boil  for  one 
hour,  fasten  down  covers,  remove  jars,  set  aside  till  the 
next  day,  and  boil  again  for  one  hour. 

Pickling  is  preserving  in  brine  or  vinegar,  to  which  sugar 
and  spice  are  often  added.  Now  that  fresh  or  canned  vege- 
tables can  be  obtained  the  year  round,  there  is  not  the  need 
for  pickling  them  that  there  was  in  our  grandmothers^  day. 
Even  as  a  condiment,  pickles  and  spiced  preserves  should 
be  used  sparingly,  and  not  at  all  by  children.  They  stimu- 
late digestion,  but  tend  to  weaken  it  in  the  long  run. 

Brief  Reference  List 
For  further  development  of  topics  treated  in  this  section 
see :  — 

Olsen  :  Pure  foods.     Ch.  12. 

Rose  :  Preservation  of  food  in  the  home.  Parts  1,  2,  3.  Cornell  reading 
course. 

U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agriculture  :  Farmers^  bulletins :  (359,  Canning  vege- 
tables in  the  home ;  203,  Canned  fruits,  preserves,  and  jellies.  Also 
circulars  on  girls'  canning  and  home  demonstration  work.) 

North  Carolina  Dept.  of  Agriculture.  V.  31,  No.  5,  May,  1900. 
Home  canning  of  fruits  and  vegetables.     (Sent  free  to  citizens.) 

Section  3.    Jam  and  Jelly;    Pectin 

Before  the  principles  of  sterilizing  were  understood,  fruit 
was  preserved  by  cooking  it  with  its  weight  of  sugar.  Such 
'^  preserves  "  are  rarely  made  now.     But  jams,  jeUies,  fruit 


304     THEORY  AND  PRACTICE  OF  COOKERY 

butters,  and  marmalades  contain  enough  sugar  to  preserve 
them.  It  is  well,  however,  to  sterilize,  or  at  least  to  dip 
into  boiling  water,  the  tumblers  or  jars  which  are  to  hold 
them,  and  they  must  be  covered  air-tight  to  protect  them 
from  mould.  Sugar  should  be  added  hot  in  making  either 
jam  or  jelly.  Measure  it  into  a  pan  and  set  it  into  the  oven. 
Take  care  that  it  does  not  scorch. 

Jam  is  made  of  fruit  and  sugar  cooked  together  till 
thick.  Any  kind  of  fruit  may  be  used.  Fruit  butter  is 
similar  to  jam,  but  thinner  and  less  sweet.  For  jam  allow 
three-fourths  of  a  pound  of  sugar  to  one  pound  of  fruit ; 
for  fruit  butter,  one-half  to  three-quarters  of  a  pound  of 
sugar  to  one  pound  of  fruit. 

Directions  for  making  Blackberry  or  Raspberry  Jam.  — 
Pick  over  and  wash  berries.  Put  them,  a  cupful"  or  so  at  a 
time,  into  a  preserving  kettle,  mashing  those  in  the  kettle 
before  adding  more.  Cook  slowly,  stirring,  and  adding  a 
little  water  if  necessary  to  prevent  sticking.  Stir  in  the  hot 
sugar  slowly.  Cook  until  thick.  Put  into  glasses  or  jars. 
When  cold,  cover  with  paraffin,  and  put  on  tin  covers. 

Paraffin  for  covering  jelly  or  jam  should  be  hot,  not 
merely  melted.  Pour  on  a  layer  one-fourth  of  an  inch  deep. 
Examine  after  it  has  cooled.  If  the  paraffin  shows  bubbles, 
add  another  layer. 

Marmalade,  as  ordinarily  made,  is  jam  of  jelly-like  con- 
sistency. 

Pectin.  —  The  jellying  substance  in  fruit-juice  is  pectin.-^ 

^  Pectin  appears  in  several  forms  (pectose,  pectocellulose,  peetic  acid, 
and  the  like).     Just  which  of  these  are  present  in  raw  juice,  in  cooked  juice. 


THE  PRESERVATION  OF  FOOD  305 

Pectin  will  not  jelly  unless  acid  is  present  and  to  make  a 
good  jelly  sugar  is  necessary.  It  is  important  that  the  sugar 
be  proportioned  rightly  to  the  pectin.  Too  little  sugar  makes 
tough  jelly.  Too  much  makes  soft  jelly,  or  even  syrup. 
No  exact  rule  can  be  given  for  the  amount  of  sugar,  because 
the  amount  of  pectin  varies  in  different  fruits,  and  in  different 
lots  of  the  same  fruit.  After  a  rain  currants  are  likely  to 
be  more  watery  than  usual,  and  so  to  contain  a  smaller  per- 
centage of  pectin. 

Test  for  pectin.  —  Prepare,  in  separate  test-tubes  or  small  dishes,  one 
tablespoonful  each  of  lemon-juice,  orange-juice,  juice  squeezed  from  raw 
currants,  juice  cooked  from  currants,  and  any  other  fruit-juices,  from 
either  raw  or  cooked  fruit.  To  each  portion  of  juice  add  one  tablespoon- 
ful of  grain  alcohol.  Note  which  juices  contain  much  pectin,  which  a 
little,  and  which  none  at  all. 

Melt  a  little  jelly,  and  test  for  pectin  with  alcohol. 

Cooking  appears  necessary  to  extract  pectin  thoroughly 
from  fruit.  This  may  be  because  much  of  it  is  in  the  cell- 
walls  of  the  fruit,  and  particularly  in  the  harder  parts,  such 
as  skin  and  core.  In  lemons  and  other  citrus  fruits  much  of 
the  pectin  is  contained  in  the  white  inner  skin.  Whole 
oranges  and  grapefruit  are  among  the  best  fruits  for  making 
marmalade. 

Pectin  acts  much  like  gelatin,  but  in  composition  re- 
sembles carbohydrates.  What  do  you  know  of  the  jelly- 
making  properties  of  starch?  of  gelatin?  Pectin  is  found 
largely  in  the  framework  of  fruits  and  vegetables.  What 
is  gelatin  made  from  ? 

and  in  jelly  has  not  been  determined.  The  change  from  liquid  to  jelly 
involves  taking  up  water  but  apparently  no  marked  change  in  composition. 


306     THEORY  AND  PRACTICE  OF  COOKERY 

The  utensils  needed  for  jelly-making  are  a  large  enamelled 
kettle,  one  or  two  large  bowls  or  enamelled  pans,  quart 
measure,  silver  spoon,  wooden  masher,  two  yards  of  firm 
cheese-cloth  doubled  to  make  a  square,  jelly  tumblers,  and 
paraffin.  A  clean  strong  stick  is  convenient  to  hang  the 
cheese-cloth  on  while  the  juice  drips.  A  jelly-bag  and  a  wire 
frame  can  be  bought. 

The  best  fruits  for  jelly  are  currants,  crab-apples,  partially 
ripened  grapes  (especially  wild  grapes),  and  tart  apples. 
Cranberries  also  jelly  easily.  Blackberries  and  quinces 
come  next.  In  the  South  and  Southwest  logan-berries 
and  loquats  are  much  used.  Apple-juice  is  often  combined 
with  other  juice  lacking  in  pectin  or  in  acid. 

Proportion  of  sugar  to  fruit.  —  Currants  and  partially 
ripened  grapes  usually  require  as  much  sugar  as  juice.  Red 
raspberries,  blackberries,  and  fruits  such  as  sour  apples, 
crab-apples,  and  cranberries,  to  which  considerable  water 
must  be  added,  take  about  three-fourths  as  much  sugar  as 
juice. 

The  best  time  to  add  the  sugar  is  about  midway  of  the 
cooking  of  the  juice  ;  after  about  five  minutes  for  currants, 
after  ten  or  fifteen  minutes  for  other  fruits. 

Directions  for  making  Currant  Jelly.  —  Wash  and  drain 
the  currants.  They  need  not  be  stemmed.  Put  them  into 
the  kettle,  a  pint  or  so  at  a  time,  and  mash  them  as  they  are 
put  in.  If  they  seem  very  watery,  add  no  water.  Otherwise 
add  about  one  cupful  of  water  to  5  or  6  quarts  of  currants. 
Stir  and  mash  them  while  they  heat.  When  they  are  hot 
and  the  juice  is  flowing,  wring  the  double  square  of  cheese- 


THE  PRESERVATION   OF   FOOD  307 

cloth  out  of  hot  water  and  lay  it  over  a  bowl  or  pan.  Trans- 
fer the  mass  of  fruit  to  it,  tie  the  corners,  and  suspend  it 
over  a  bowl  or  pan  by  a  stick  laid  across  the  backs  of  two 
chairs,  or  the  rungs  of  a  stool  upside  down.  Let  it  drip  until 
most  of  the  juice  is  out,  for  from  30  minutes  to  one  hour. 
Measure  the  juice.  Measure  an  equal  quantity  of  sugar. 
Heat  the  juice  in  a  kettle,  the  sugar  in  the  oven.  Boil  the 
juice  for  five  minutes,  removing  scum  as  it  rises.  Add  sugar. 
Boil  three  to  five  minutes  longer.  Test  by  dropping  a  little 
on  a  cold  plate.^  When  the  plate  can  be  stood  on  edge 
without  making  the  jelly  run,  remove  from  the  fire,  and  dip, 
or  better,  pour  into  glasses.  When  the  jelly  has  set  firmly, 
cover  with  paraffin.      (P.  304.) 

Put  the  mass  of  currants  back  into  the  kettle,  cover  with 
water,  and  heat  again  to  obtain  more  juice.  Proceed  with 
this  juice  as  with  the  first  lot.  Before  adding  sugar  to  it, 
take  out  a  little  and  test  for  pectin.  If  much  is  found,  a 
third  lot  of  juice  may  be  extracted  and  made  into  jelly. 

If  preferred,  the  first  juice  may  be  allowed  to  drip  several 
hours  or  overnight,  the  bowl  removed,  and  a  second  lot  of 
juice  squeezed  out.  This  juice  will  make  a  less  clear  jelly, 
which  can  be  used  for  jelly-cake,  etc. 

Directions  for  making  Apple  or  Crab-apple  Jelly.  —  Wash, 
stem,  and  wipe  crab-apples,  or  tart  apples.  Cut  into  quarters. 
Do  not  core.  Barely  cover  them  with  cold  water.  Cook 
till  soft.  Mash,  and  let  drain  in  cheese-cloth.  Measure 
three-fourths  of  a  cup  of  sugar  for  each  cup  of  juice.     Proceed 

1  Another  test  is  the  jellying,  or  breaking  off  of  the  hot  mass  as  it  falls 
from  the  spoon. 


308     THEORY  AND  PRACTICE  OF  COOKERY 

as  with   currant  jelly,   adding  sugar  when  the  juice  has 
boiled  about  fifteen  minutes. 

HELPFUL   HINTS   ABOUT   JAM   AND   JELLY   MAKING 

1.  Jam  may  be  made  from  fruit  not  perfect  enough  to 
can,  from  fruit  slightly  overripe,  and  from  small  pieces  left 
after  canning. 

2.  Jam  may  be  cooked  in  a  fireless  cooker.  This  saves 
watching  and  stirring. 

3.  Jelly,  though  not  of  the  finest  grade,  may  be  made  from 
the  cores  and  parings  from  apples  and  quince^  cut  up  for 
canning. 

4.  In  jelly-making,  when  much  water  has  to  be  added  to 
the  fruit,  the  juice  must  be  boiled  down  to  restore  its  natural 
composition.  Long  boiling  may  destroy  the  jellying  prop- 
erty of  the  pectin.  Therefore  use  as  little  water  as  possible, 
and  avoid  overcooking. 

5.  If  after  cooking  the  usual  length  of  time  for  the  fruit 

in  use,  the  sweetened  juice  will  not  jelly,  re-measure  it,  and 

add  to  it  an  equal  quantity  of  juice.     Cook  again,  and  test 

as  usual. 

Brief  Reference  List 

For  further  development  of  topics  treated  in  this  section 
see :  — 

Olsen:  Pure  foods.    Ch.  13. 

GoLDTHWAiTE  :  Principles  of  jelly-making.  (University  of  Illinois  bulle- 
tin, V.  11,  no.  31,  March  30,  1914.) 

Snell  :  Household  chemistry.     P.  180,  Pectin. 

NoRRis :  Organic  chemistry.     Pp.  320-327,  Pectin. 

Harris  :  Jellies,  preserves,  and  marmalades.  Florida  State  College  for 
Women.    Dept.  of  Home  Economics.    Extension  bulletin  No.  3. 


CHAPTER   XI 


FOOD  FOR  BABIES   AND   THE   SICK 
Section  1.    Food  for  Babies 

Review  text  on  Milk  in  Chap.  3,  Sec.  2,  also  Chap.  10,  all  of  Sec.  1, 
and  text  relating  to  cleanHness  and  sterilization  in  Sec.  2. 

The  best  food  for  a  baby  is  its  mother's  milk.  —  This 
is  as  perfectly  fitted  for  the  baby  as  a  cow's  milk  is  for  her 
calf;  the  egg  for  the  unhatched  chick,  the  seed  for  the 
seedHng.  It  is  very  important  for  a  baby  to  have  mother's 
milk,  if  possible,  for  the  first  few  months  at  least. 

Feeding  a  baby  on  something  other  than  mother's  milk  is 
often  called  artificial  feeding.  A  better  term  is  substitute  feed- 
ing. The  best  substitute  we  have  ^  for  mother's  milk  is  fresh 
cow's*  milk.  Plain  milk  just  as  it  comes  from  the  cow  is  not 
good  for  most  babies  under  one  year  old.  This  is  because  it 
differs  in  many  ways  from  human  milk.  It  has  more  than  twice 
as  much  protein,^  and  only  about  two-thirds  as  much  sugar. 

1  In  some  European  countries  goat's  milk  is  used,  and  in  other  parts  of 
the  world  the  milk  of  other  animals.  Sick  babies  or  babies  with  disor- 
dered digestion  cannot  always  take  cow's  milk.  This  section  treats  of 
feeding  normal  healthy  babies. 

2  Average  Percentage  Composition  of  Cow's  Milk  and  of  Human 

Milk 


Water 

Fat 

Sugar 

Protein 

A8H 

Cow's  milk 

Human  milk 

87.25 
87.30 

4.00 
4.00 

4.50 
7.00 

3.50 
1.50 

.70 
.20 

309 


310     THEORY  AND  PRACTICE  OF  COOKERY 

It  has  more  than  three  times  as  much  mineral  matter. 
The  two  kinds  of  milk  contain  about  the  same  percentage 
of  fat,  but  the  fat  of  cow^s  milk  is  more  solid.  The  protein 
too  is  different.  Moreover,  the  foodstuffs  in  mother's  milk 
are  more  easily  assimilated  by  the  baby,  especially  during  the 
first  few  weeks  of  life.^  The  nursing  baby  gets  food  that  is 
perfectly  fresh,  alkaline  or  only  faintly  acid,  and  practically 
free  from  bacteria.  As  the  baby  grows  this  food  changes 
to  meet  his  needs.  The  bottle-fed  baby's  food  must  be 
prepared  from  milk  which  is  usually  many  hours  old,  perhaps 
more  than  a  day  old.  It  is  more  or  less  acid  and  contains 
bacteria,  often  in  great  numbers.  It  cannot  be  changed 
gradually  enough  to  keep  it  exactly  adjusted  to  the  baby's 
needs. 

Modified  milk.  —  We  can  make  cow's  milk  more  digestible 
and  nutritious  for  the  baby  by  diluting  it  with  water  and 
adding  sugar  and  sometimes  other  things.  Milk  so  altered 
is  called  modified  milk.  Each  baby  must  have  his  milk  modi- 
fied to  suit  his  particular  needs  at  a  given  time.     Any  one 

1  These  differences  in  composition  correspond  to  differences  between 
a  calf  and  the  baby.  The  calf  grows  much  the  faster.  It  doubles  in 
weight  in  47  days.  So  it  needs  a  much  greater  proportion  of  bone  and 
muscle  building  material  than  the  baby,  who  takes  180  days  to  double 
his  weight.  The  calf  is  soon  going  to  eat  coarse  food,  and  so  is  provided 
with  four  stomachs,  which  enable  it  to  do  more  digestive  work  than  the 
baby  can  from  the  first.  The  baby  begins  life  quite  helpless,  while  the 
calf  in  a  few  hours  can  walk  and  almost  take  care  of  itself.  When  the 
baby  is  grown  up  he  will  far  surpass  any  animal  in  skill  and  intelligence. 
This  means  that  he  has  to  build  up  a  wonderful  nervous  system  from  the 
incomplete  one  he  has  at  birth,  instead  of  starting  life  as  the  calf  does  with 
a  nervous  system  practically  complete.  Human  milk  provides  for  all  this 
better  than  cow's  milk  does. 


FOOD  FOR  BABIES  AND  THE  SICK  311 

can  learn  to  modify  milk  and  prepare  bottled  food  according 
to  instructions^  but  to  decide  rightly  what  food  a  given  baby 
should  have,  requires  much  knowledge  and  study.  The 
best  plan  usually  is  to  have  a  doctor  who  knows  the  baby 
prescribe  his  food  and  give  instructions  for  preparing  it 
and  for  changing  it  from  time  to  time. 

PREPARING  THE  BABY's  FOOD 

To  do  this  right,  three  things  are  essential :  Good  ma- 
terials, extreme  cleanliness,  perfect  accuracy.  Proper  uten- 
sils help  to  insure  cleanliness  and  accuracy. 

List  of  utensils  needed  :  — 

8  or  10  feeding-bottles. 

Corks,  preferably  rubber,  one  for  each  bottle,  or 
Absorbent  cotton. 
Bottle-brush  to  clean  bottles. 

Wire  bottle-rack  to  hold  bottles.  (If  you  have  a  pasteurizer-rack  no 
other  is  needed.) 

Several  rubber  nipples. 

Covered  jar  or  bowl  to  keep  nipples  in. 

Enamelled  or  earthen  pitcher  in  which  to  mix  food. 

New  enamelled  saucepan  or  double  boiler  for  cooking  gruel. 

Glass  jar  to  keep  gruel  in. 

Measuring-glass,  also  called  a  graduate. 

Tablespoon  and  knife  for  measuring. 

Tall  cup  or  quart  measure  for  heating  milk. 

If  cream  or  top-milk  is  to  be  removed,  a  cream-dipper  will  be  needed. 

Care  of  utensils.  —  The  utensils  used  in  preparing  a 
baby's  food  should  not  be  used  for  anything  else.  Keep 
them  all  together  and  take  care  of  them  yourself.     Wash 


312     THEORY  AND  PRACTICE  OF  COOKERY 

them  as  soon  as  you  are  done  with  them.  Rinse  them  all 
over  in  boiling  water.  Do  not  wipe  them.  Put  them  away 
out  of  the  dust  where  no  one  will  touch  them.  Rinse  them 
again  in  hot  water  just  before  using  them. 

Bottles.  —  Eight-ounce  bottles  are  most  frequently  used. 
If  the  baby  takes  more  than  eight  ounces  at  one  feeding, 
use  twelve-ounce  bottles.  Bottles  d  and  e  in  Plate  XV  are 
well-shaped.  Their  sloping  shape  makes  them  easier  to  clean 
than  bottles  a  and  6,  which  have  a  pronounced  shoulder. 
The  straight  bottle,  c,  is  the  easiest  of  any  to  clean,  but 
both  the  bottle  and  large  nipple  to  fit  it  cost  more  than 
other  kinds.  It  is  not  necessary  except  for  a  baby  who 
refuses  any  nipple  but  the  large  one. 

Get  bottles  on  which  the  ounces  are  marked.  If  one 
must  economize,  an  accurately-marked  bottle  may  be  used 
for  measuring  instead  of  a  measuring-glass.  Keep  on  hand 
at  least  one  extra  bottle  so  that  you  will  not  be  short  if  one 
is  broken. 

Care  of  feeding-bottles.  —  Clean  new  bottles  thoroughly 
with  soap,  water,  and  bottle-brush.  Put  them  into  cold 
water,  let  it  come  to  the  boiling-point  and  boil  for  fifteen 
minutes.  Let  the  bottles  cool  in  the  water.  This  not  only 
sterilizes  them  (see  directions  for  sterilizing  fruit-jars),  but 
makes  them  less  likely  to  break.  As  soon  as  a  feeding- 
bottle  has  been  used,  remove  the  nipple  and  throw  away  any 
milk  left  in  the  bottle.  Either  wash  it  at  once  or  fill  it 
with  cold  water  and  set  it  in  the  rack.  Clean  all  bottles 
thoroughly  with  soap,  water,  and  brush,  before  using  them 
again.     Just  before  refilling  them,  sterilize  them  in  boiling 


il 


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FOOD  FOR  BABIES  AND  THE  SICK  313 

water.  Remove  bottles  from  water,  plug  them  with  sterile 
cotton,  and  let  them  cool.  Or,  sterilize  them  in  a  covered 
kettle,  and  let  them  cool  in  the  water,  not  removing  cover 
or  bottles  till  the  bottles  are  to  be  refilled.  Never  fill 
bottles  while  they  are  hot.^ 

Cotton  must  be  kept  in  a  tightly  covered  box  or  jar.  Buy 
sterilized  cotton  and  keep  it  in  a  covered  box  or  can.  It 
may  be  re-sterilized  at  home  if  necessary,  by  baking  it  in 
the  oven  for  one  hour,  wrapped  in  cheese-cloth. 

Nipples.  —  Select  black  nipples  which  do  not  collapse 
easily.  It  is  best  to  buy  those  without  a  hole.  A  hole  of 
the  size  desired  can  be  made  with  a  red-hot  needle.  It 
should  allow  the  milk  to  drop  steadily,  but  not  run  in  a 
stream,  when  the  bottle  is  inverted. 

Care  of  nipples.  —  Boil  new  nipples  for  five  minutes.  As 
soon  as  a  feeding-bottle  has  been  used,  remove  the  nipple 
and  wash  it  under  the  cold-water  faucet,  turning  it  inside  out 
to  wash  the  inside.  See  that  no  speck  of  milk  clings  to  the 
rim.  The  nipple  may  then  be  dropped  into  a  bowl  of  boric 
acid  solution  kept  for  the  purpose.  If  preferred,  all  the 
nipples  in  use  may  be  boiled  daily,  wrapped  in  a  sterilized 
cloth,  and  put  in  a  covered  jar.  They  should  be  so  wrapped 
that  one  nipple  can  be  taken  out  without  touching  or  ex- 
posing the  rest.  Boiling  the  nipples  tends  to  soften  them 
and  is  unnecessary  if  boric  acid  is  used. 

To  make  boric  acid  solution  dissolve  in  one  cupful  of 
boiling  hot  water  a  heaping  teaspoonful  of  boric  acid,  and 
let  it  cool.  It  will  not  dissolve  in  cold  water.  Boric  acid 
1  As  the  food  is  not  to  be  sterilized,  it  must  be  kept  cold.     Why  ? 


314 


THEORY  AND  PRACTICE  OF  COOKERY 


is  a  preservative.     What  then  is  its  effect  on  microorgan- 
isms?    (See  ways  of  preserving  food,  p.  296.) 
Wash  and  boil  corks  daily. 

LIST  OF  INGREDIENTS   COMMONLY  USED   IN  MODIFYING  MILK 

Note.  —  The  word  milk,  used  alone,  means  ordinary  milkman's  milk 
containing  about  4%  of  fat. 

Whole  milk 
Milk  I  Top  milk 

Skim  milk 


Gruel 

Sugar 

Water 

Alkalies 


Oatmeal 

Barley 

Sometimes  other  cereals 

Cane-sugar 
Milk-sugar 

Malt-sugar    ("  Dextri-maltose/^        "  malt-soup 
extract,"  or  other  preparation  of  maltose). 

Lime-water 
Magnesia 
Baking  soda 


The  milk.  —  Raw  milk  is  best  if  it  can  be  obtained  very 
clean.  The  cleaner  it  is,  the  fewer  bacteria  it  contains.  Sick- 
ness and  death  are  much  more  common  among  bottle-fed 
than  among  nursing  babies.  Bacteria  in  milk  cause  much 
of  these.  If  the  milk  is  obtained  fresh  from  the  cow,  make 
sure  that  the  cow  is  healthy  and  that  the  milk  is  drawn  and 


FOOD  FOR  BABIES  AND  THE  SICK  315 

handled  in  the  cleanHest  possible  way.  When  it  comes  into 
the  house,  strain  it  through  several  layers  of  cheese-cloth  into 
sterilized  jars  or  milk-bottles.  (How  will  you  sterilize 
these  ?)     Keep  it  cool  till  used. 

If  milk  is  obtained  from  a  milkman,  buy  bottled  milk, 
the  cleanest  obtainable.  Certified  milk,  guaranteed  to  be 
exceptionally  clean,  is  sold  at  an  extra  price  in  some  cities. 
Many  cities  have  milk  stations  at  which  high-grade  milk  is 
sold  at  cost  or  below  cost  to  mothers  who  otherwise  could  not 
afford  to  buy  good  milk  for  their  babies.  Never  use  loose 
milk.     (For  care  of  milk  see  p.  96.) 

The  milk  of  Holstein  or  ordinary  grade  cows  is  best. 
The  milk  of  Jerseys  is  too  rich  in  fat  for  most  babies.  Mixed 
milk  is  better  than  milk  from  one  cow,  because  it  varies  less 
from  day  to  day. 

Water.  —  The  milk  must  be  diluted  with  water  to  reduce 
the  proportion  of  protein.  For  a  little  baby  the  milk  must 
be  made  very  weak  at  first.  As  the  baby  gets  used  to 
cow's  milk,  it  is  made  stronger.  Water  is  sometimes  added 
plain,  sometimes  made  into  gruel  with  a  cereal.  When 
added  plain,  it  must  first  be  boiled  and  cooled. 

Sugar.  —  Sugar  is  not  added  for  the  sake  of  its  taste,  but 
for  its  food  value  (pp.  266  and  269).  Milk-sugar,  the  kind 
which  Nature  provides,  is  in  some  ways  the  best.  The  best 
milk-sugar,  however,  is  expensive.  Cane-sugar  agrees  very 
well  with  some  babies.  Other  babies  do  better  on  malt-sugar 
than  on  either  milk-sugar  or  cane-sugar.  Dissolve  malt- 
sugar  in  boiling  water,  using  one  ounce  of  water  to  one  of 
sugar.     Other  sugars  may  be  dissolved  in  the  boiled  water 


316     THEORY  AND  PRACTICE  OF  COOKERY 

after  it  has  cooled,  or  in  the  milk.  If  cane-sugar  is  not 
bought  in  a  sealed  package,  it  may  not  be  clean  and  should 
be  boiled. 

Gruels.  —  The  younger  the  baby,  the  less  starch  he  can 
digest.  Whether  the  starch  is  digested  or  not,  adding  gruel 
to  the  milk  often  makes  it  agree  better  with  the  baby.  The 
less  fat  there  is  in  the  food,  the  more  carbohydrate  should  be 
added.     (Explain  why.) 

Directions  for  Gruels.  —  The  easiest  way  to  make  gruel 
is  from  the  flour  of  wheat,  barley,  oats,  rice,  whichever  may 
be  ordered.  If  the  unground  grain  is  used,  many  hours' 
cooking  is  required.  A  gruel  may  be  made  thick  enough 
to  jelly  when  cold  or  thin  enough  to  remain  watery. 

To  prepare  barley  water,  stir  together  one  level  teaspoonful 
of  barley  flour  and  enough  cold  water  to  make  a  smooth 
paste.  Stir  in  two  and  one-fourth  cups  of  boiling  water,  and 
boil  gently  fifteen  minutes.  Or  cook  in  a  double  boiler 
at  least  one  hour.  (Unless  you  can  watch  it  constantly, 
it  is  better  to  use  the  double  boiler.)  If  it  boils  away,  add 
boiling  water.  When  cooked,  measure,  and,  if  necessary, 
add  enough  boiling  water  to  bring  the  amount  of  gruel 
up  to  one  pint. 

Oatmeal  water  is  made  in  the  same  way.^ 

For  barley  jelly,  follow  the  same  directions,  except  that 
2  to  4  tablespoonfuls  of  flour  is  used,  according  to  the  thick- 
ness desired. 

Other  kinds  of  gruels  are  made  like  barley  water  and  barley 
1  Oatmeal  is  laxative.     Barley  has  the  opposite  effect. 


FOOD  FOR  BABIES  AND  THE  SICK  317 

jelly.  The  gruels  should  be  cold  when  added  to  the  milk.  It 
is  best  to  make  it  the  night  before.  Enough  for  two  or  three 
days  may  be  made  at  one  time  and  kept  in  a  glass  jar  if 
there  is  an  ice-box  or  other  clean,  cold  place  to  keep  it  in. 

MIXING  THE    FOOD 

A  recipe  for  modified  milk  is  called  a  formula.  Formulas 
for  babies  of  different  ages  and  weights  have  been  worked 
out,  according  to  several  different  systems.  We  cannot 
attempt  to  master  any  one  of  the  systems,  but  we  will  pre- 
pare food  according  to  a  few  selected  formulas. 

Before  beginning  work,  wipe  off  the  table,  put  on  a  clean 
apron,  and  wash  your  hands  and  clean  your  nails  thoroughly. 
You  should  be  even  more  careful  to  guard  against  dust  and 
bacteria  than  when  canning,  because,  as  a  rule,  the  baby's 
milk  is  not  to  be  steriUzed. 

Formula  1  • 

Whole  milk,  6  oz.  Water,  15  oz. 

Milk-sugar,  2  tb. 

This  formula  will  make  21  ounces  of  food.  It  is  to  be 
divided  into  seven  feedings.  How  many  bottles  will  be 
needed?  How  many  ounces  of  food  must  be  put  into  each 
bottle? 

Boil  about  a  pint  of  water  the  first  thing  so  that  it  will 
have  time  to  cool  before  you  use  it.  If  the  bottles  and  corks 
have  not  been  sterilized  according  to  directions  for  steriliz- 
ing jars  on  p.  298,  do  this  at  once.  Collect  all  the  materials 
and  utensils  needed.     Rinse  the  utensils  in  boiling  water. 


318     THEORY  AND  PRACTICE  OP  COOKERY 

Fill  the  measuring-glass  with  boiled  and  cooled  water 
exactly  to  the  15-ounce  mark.  Pour  it  into  the  pitcher. 
Measure  the  sugar  and  put  it  into  the  pitcher.  Stir  till  it  is 
dissolved.  Turn  the  milk  bottle  upside  down  and  shake  it 
well  to  mix  in  the  cream.  Wipe  the  mouth  of  the  bottle  before 
removing  the  cap.  Fill  measuring-glass  with  milk  exactly  to 
the  6-ounce  mark.    Pour  the  milk  into  the  pitcher.    Stir  well. 

Set  bottles  upright  in  rack.  Place  funnel  in  neck  of  the 
first  bottle  in  the  row.  Pour  exactly  three  ounces  of  food 
into  the  bottle.  Place  funnel  in  the  next  bottle.  Pour  in 
three  ounces.  Proceed  till  all  the  bottles  are  filled.  Cork 
them  and  place  next  to  ice. 

Formula  2 
Milk,  10  oz.  Lime-water,  1  oz. 

Barley  water,  17  oz.  Cane-sugar,  2  tb. 

Prepare  according  to  directions  for  preparing  Formula  1, 
and  divide  into  seveii  feedings.  When  plain  water  is  used, 
it  is  best  to  dissolve  the  sugar  (milk  or  cane)  in  it.  In  other 
cases  it  may  be  added  after  the  liquid  ingredients  are  in  the 
pitcher.  The  order  in  which  the  ingredients  are  added  does 
not  matter  so  much  as  that  they  shall  be  well  mixed  and  the 
sugar  dissolved.  Always  wipe  the  mouth  of  the  lime-water 
bottle  before  pouring  out  the  lime-water. 

Formula  3 
Milk,  15  oz.  Water,  5  oz. 

Barley  water,  10  oz.  Lime-water,  1  oz. 

Maltose,  f  oz.^ 

1  Malt  soup,  malt  food,  dextri-maltose,  or  neutral  maltose.  If  Frei- 
hofer's  malt  is  used,  add  to  every  ounce  10  grains  of  potassium  carbonate 
to  neutralize  its  acidity. 


FOOD  FOR  BABIES  AND  THE  SICK  319 

Malt  soup  is  liquid.  If  a  solid  maltose  is  used,  put  it  with 
the  water  in  a  saucepan,  let  it  come  to  a  boil,  and  cool. 
Proceed  as  for  Formulas  1  and  2.  How  many  ounces  will 
this  formula  make  ?  It  is  to  be  divided  into  seven  feedings, 
of  4 J  ounces  each..  How  much  will  be  left  over?  Divide 
this  trifle  between  two  or  three  of  the  bottles. 

CHANGING  THE    PROPORTION   OF   FAT   IN   MILK 

Increasing  the  proportion  of  fat.  —  The  amount  of 
fat  in  milk  is  indicated  by  calling  it  a  4  %  milk,  or  a  5  or  6  % 
milk,  according  to  the  percentage  of  fat  it  contains.  Most 
babies  cannot  digest  milk  containing  more  than  4  %  of  fat. 
If  a  baby  can  digest  richer  milk,  it  is  well  to  give  it  to  him. 
For  some  babies  7  %  milk  may  be  used.  In  this  there  is  about 
twice  as  much  fat  as  protein,  the  same  proportion  as  in 
mother's  milk.  Few  cows  give  7  %  milk.  It  may  be  ob- 
tained by  adding  cream  to  poorer  milk,  or  by  using  the  top 
part  of  bottled  milk.  Formulas  calling  for  such  milk  are 
called  top-milk  formulas. 

Formula  4 
7  %  milk,  7  oz.  Lime-water,  1  oz. 

Milk  sugar,  f  oz.  Water,  12  oz. 

This  is  to  be  divided  into  seven  bottles,  putting  a  scant 
three  ounces  into  each  bottle. 

Remove  with  a  cream  dipper  the  upper  16  ounces  of  a 
quart  bottle  of  ordinary  (4  %)  milk.  Do  not  pour  it  off. 
Measure  seven  ounces  of  this  top  milk  and  proceed  as  in 
Formula  1. 


320     THEORY  AND  PRACTICE  OF  COOKERY 

To  obtain  7  %  milk  from  milk  containing  less  than  4  %  of 
fat,  you  will  have  to  use  less  than  half  the  bottle.  To  obtain 
it  from  rich  Jersey  milk  you  will  have  to  use  more  than  half 
the  bottle.  If  a  doctor  orders  top-milk  formulas,  he  will 
see  that  you  have  milk  of  a  known  fat  content  and  will  tell 
you  exactly  how  much  top  milk  to  remove. 

The  use  of  skim  milk.  Lowering  the  proportion  of 
fat.  —  Skim  milk  may  be  used  as  the  basis  of  modified 
milk,  or  it  may  be  used  instead  of  water  to  dilute  whole 
milk,  when  the  object  is  to  reduce  the  fat  without  reduc- 
ing the  protein  and  salts.  To  obtain  4  %  milk  from  5  % 
multiply  32  by  5,  divide  by  4,  and  subtract  32.  This  gives 
us  8,  the  number  of  ounces  of  skimmed  milk  which  must  be 
added  to  a  bottle  of  whole  milk  to  make  4  %  milk. 

General  rule  for  lowering  the  fat  content.  —  Multiply  the 
number  of  ounces  in  a  quart,  32,  by  the  figure  representing 
the  fat  content.  Divide  the  product  by  the  figure  rep- 
resenting the  desired  fat  content,  and  subtract  32  from 
the  quotient.  The  resulting  figure  will  be  the  number  of 
ounces  of  skimmed  milk  to  be  added  to  the  richer  whole  milk 
to  produce  the  milk  desired. 

If  the  milk  comes  in  a  pint  bottle,  what  figure  would 
you  use  instead  of  32  ?  Figure  out  the  reduction  of  1  pint 
of  5  %  milk  to  4  %  milk.  How  many  ounces  of  4  %  milk 
can  you  make  out  of  2  quart  bottles  of  5  %  milk  ? 
How  many  out  of  2  pint  bottles?  If  the  formula  calls 
for  18  ounces  of  milk  or  less,  will  it  be  most  economical 
to  use  quart  or  pint  bottles?  Why?  An  extra  pitcher 
will  be  needed  for  mixing  the  skim  milk  and  whole  milk. 


FOOD   FOR   BABIES  AND   THE  SICK  321 

Formula  5 
Milk  (4  %),  16|  oz.  Malt  sugar,  2  tb. 

Barley  jelly  (thick  Water  (to  boil  sugar  in),  3  oz. 

barley  gruel),  10^  oz. 

Suppose  you  have  only  5  %  milk.  To  obtain  4  %  milk, 
you  must  add  8  ounces  of  skimmed  milk  to  a  quart  of  whole 
milk,  or  4  ounces  of  skimmed  milk  to  a  pint  bottle  of  whole 
milk.  To  skim  the  milk,  dip  off  all  the  cream  with  a  cream- 
dipper.  The  milk  should  have  stood  in  a  cold  place  at  least 
four  hours,  so  that  the  cream  line  is  distinct.  Stir  the  skim 
milk  and  whole  milk  together  in  one  pitcher.  Measure 
16^  ounces  and  put  into  the  other  pitcher.  Proceed  as  with 
other  formulas.  Stir  the  food  after  filling  each  bottle,  or 
the  barley  jelly  may  settle  at  the  bottom  of  the  pitcher, 
and  the  last  bottle  filled  will  contain  more  barley  jelly  than 
the  others.     Do  this  wherever  thick  gruel  is  used. 

Note  to  Teacher.  —  For  school-work  it  is  not  necessary  to  have  actual 
5  %  milk.  The  method  of  obtaining  4  %  milk  from  5  %  milk  may  be  prac- 
ticed with  any  milk,  whatever  its  fat  content. 

PASTEURIZED   MILK   FOR   BABIES 

If  you  cannot  be  sure  that  the  milk  is  from  healthy  cows 
and  exceptionally  clean,  it  should  be  pasteurized,  boiled,  or 
sterilized.  What  is  the  purpose  of  sterilization?  of  pas- 
teurization? How  would  you  pasteurize  milk  for  family 
use?  (See  Home  pasteurization,  p.  97.)  Milk  pasteurized 
at  145°  F.  is  about  as  nutritious  and  digestible  for  a  baby 
as  raw  milk  is,  although  there  is  reason  to  think  that  raw 
milk,  if    clean,  has   some   advantages.      Commercial    pas- 


322     THEORY  AND  PRACTICE  OF  COOKERY 

teurization  does  not  make  milk  safe  for  a  baby.  When 
his  milk  is  to  be  pasteurized,  this  should  be  done  after  it 
has  been  modified  and  put  into  feeding-bottles. 

The  pasteurizer.  —  Several  makes  of  pasteurizers  can  be 
bought.  The  essentials  are  a  circular  rack  made  to  hold 
feeding-bottles,  a  kettle  or  pail  large  enough  to  hold  the  rack, 
and  a  thermometer.  The  rack  must  hold  at  least  as  many 
bottles  as  the  baby  has  feedings  in  twenty-four  hours.^ 
With  an  improvised  pasteurizer,  a  bath-towel  or  other 
thick  cloth  will  be  needed. 

Directions  for  pasteurizing  modified  milk.^  —  Set  the 
bottles  in  the  rack  to  fill  them.  Plug  them  with  steriHzed, 
but  not  absorbent,  cotton.  Place  the  rack  in  the  kettle. 
Insert  a  thermometer  in  the  neck  of  one  bottle.  Pour  cold 
water  into  the  kettle  till  it  reaches  above  the  level  of  the 
milk.  Heat  the  water  slowly  and  watch  the  thermometer. 
When  it  registers  145°  F.,  remove  the  bottles.  Change  the 
thermometer  from  the  milk  to  the  water.  Pour  cold  water 
into  the  kettle  until  the  thermometer  again  registers  145°  F. 
Put  the  bottles  back  and  cover  them  with  a  clean  bath- 
towel  or  other  heavy  cloth.  Let  them  stand  covered  at 
least  twenty  minutes,  and  not  more  than  thirty.  Cool  the 
bottles  quickly.  This  may  be  done  by  running  cold  water 
into  the  kettle.  Take  out  the  cotton  plugs,  one  at  a  time, 
instantly  replacing  each  by  a  sterilized  cork.  Pack  the 
bottles  in  ice  or  set  them  close  to  ice  in  the  refrigerator. 

1  In  the  absence  of  a  rack,  the  bottles  may  stand  on  a  tin  pie-plate  with 
a  few  holes  punched  in  it.     The  plate  is  supported  on  blocks  of  wood. 

2  Adapted  from  Circular  197.  Bureau  of  Animal  Industry.  U.  S.  Dept. 
of  Agriculture. 


FOOD   FOR  BABIES  AND   THE  SICK  323 

How  does  the  method  of  pasteurizing  in  feeding-bottles 
differ  from  that  of  pasteurizing  in  milk-bottles  ?  Why  not 
cool  the  bottles  by  putting  them  on  ice  at  once? 

Boiled  milk  may  be  ordered  for  a  very  young  baby,  or  for  a 
baby  with  disordered  digestion.  It  is  not  best,  as  a  rule, 
to  give  it  to  a  well  baby  for  long  at  a  time.  If  the  milk  is 
suspected  of  containing  dirt  or  disease  germs,  it  should  be 
boiled  as  a  precaution.  The  best  method  is  to  put  the  bottles 
of  food  in  the  pasteurizer,  let  the  water  come  to  a  boil,  and 
boil  for  forty-five  minutes.  Another  way  is  to  boil  the  modi- 
fied milk  in  a  saucepan  for  from  one  to  two  minutes,  and 
pour  at  once  into  the  feeding-bottles.  Cool  in  running  water, 
and  place  on  ice.  Use  within  twenty-four  hours.  How  can 
you  keep  the  bottles  from  breaking  when  the  hot  milk  is 
poured  into  them  ? 

TEMPORARY   SUBSTITUTES   FOR   FRESH   MILK 

Sterilized  milk.  —  If  the  milk  must  be  kept  for  more  than 
twenty-four  hours,  or  kept  without  ice,  as  on  a  journey,  all 
the  spores  in  it  must  be  killed  as  well  as  all  the  active  micro- 
organisms. (See  Bacteria  in  milk,  p.  97,  and  the  Life  his- 
tory of  bacteria,  p.  295.)  To  sterilize  milk,  boil  it  in  the 
feeding-bottles  for  fifteen  minutes  on  three  successive  days. 
Keep  them  on  ice  between  one  sterilization  and  the  next. 
If  the  bottles  are  corked  in  the  ice-box,  replace  corks 
by  cotton  plugs  during  sterilization. 

Sterilizing  milk  lessens  its  food  value.  A  baby  fed  upon 
it  for  a  long  time  is  likely  to  become  seriously  ill. 

Camied  milk :    condensed  or  evaporated.  —  There  are 


324     THEORY  AND  PRACTICE  OF  COOKERY 

three  kinds  of  canned  milk.  The  first  is  made  of  unsweet- 
ened whole  milk,  the  second  of  whole  milk  sweetened,  the 
third  of  skim  milk  sweetened.  Unsweetened  condensed 
milk  is  sterilized.  This  alone  makes  it  unfit  for  a  baby^s 
steady  use.  The  sweetened  kinds  depend  for  their  keeping 
qualities  on  the  large  amount  of  cane-sugar  added  to  them. 
(What  other  food  is  sometimes  preserved  in  this  way?) 
Canned  milk  is  a  convenience  when  good  fresh  milk  cannot 
be  obtained.  It  cannot  make  good  the  place  of  fresh  milk 
in  the  diet.  As  a  baby-food  it  has  many  defects.  It-  may 
not  be  made  from  clean  milk.  Most  kinds  contain  too 
little  fat,  and,  when  diluted  for  use,  too  little  mineral  matter. 
Sweetened  condensed  milk  contains  too  much  sugar.  Babies 
fed  on  it  are  often  very  fat,  but  they  are  not  likely  to  grow 
up  strong.  Unsweetened  condensed  milk  may  be  used  for 
a  short  time  when  good  fresh  milk  is  not  obtainable  or  does 
not  agree  with  the  baby. 

Dried  milks.  —  Several  kinds  of  dried  and  powdered 
milks  are  on  the  market.  Some  are  made  from  whole  milk, 
some  from  skim  milk.  Certain  of  these  may  be  prescribed 
for  a  sick  baby,  or  used  for  a  well  one,  as  condensed  milk 
may,  in  an  emergency.  So-called  ^^  malted  milk "  is  a 
mixture  of  dried  milk  and  malted  grain. 

Proprietary  baby-foods  (Mellin's  and  the  like)  are  not 
substitutes  for  milk.  They  are  cereal  foods,  with  more  or 
less  of  the  starch  changed  to  more  soluble  carbohydrates. 
For  some  babies  one  of  the^e  foods  may  be  added,  instead  of 
gruel,  to  the  milk.  They  are  much  more  expensive  than 
gruel,  however. 


FOOD  FOR  BABIES  AND   THE  SICK  325 

Other  foods  sometimes  prescribed  for  bottle-babies  are 
beef -juice,  white-of-egg,  vegetable  soup  made  according 
to  a  special  formula,  and  orange-juice.  Babies  who  have 
to  be  fed  on  sterilized  milk  must  have  fresh  orange-juice. 
It  is  well  to  give  orange-juice  if  there  is  any  possibility  that 
the  milk  you  use  has  been  pasteurized  or  heated  at  all,  or 
if  it  is  diluted  more  than  one-third. 

A  baby  under  one  year  must  not  have  ice-cream,  candy, 
soda-water,  and,  of  course,  no  tea,  coffee,  beer,  or  any  al- 
coholic drink.  Nor  should  he  have  any  solid  food,  except, 
after  the  ninth  month,  a  spoonful  of  soft-cooked  egg  oc- 
casionally, and  a  piece  of  zwieback  or  a  hard  Educator 
cracker  to  gnaw. 

A  baby  needs  water. — This  should  be  boiled  and  cooled. 
It  may  be  given  to  a  little  baby  from  a  feeding-bottle. 
Later  let  him  learn  to  take  it  from  a  spoon. 

GENEKAL  INSTRUCTIONS  ABOUT  FEEDING  THE  BABY 

1.  Feed  the  baby  regularly,  and  not  too  often.  Until 
the  baby  is  four  or  five  months  old,  he  should,  in  most  cases, 
be  fed  six  times  during  the  day  and  once  during  the  night. 
Convenient  feeding  hours  are  7,  10,  1,  4,  7,  and  10  o^clock, 
and  2  o^clock  in  the  night.  After  the  age  of  four  or  five 
months  feed  six  times  only;  give  nothing  between  10  or  11 
at  night  and  6  or  7  in  the  morning.  It  is  usually  not  best 
to  feed  a  bottle-baby  quite  so  often  as  a  nursing  baby. 

2.  To  warm  the  bottle,  place  it  about  ten  minutes  before 
feeding-time  in  a  tall  cup  of  warm  water,  so  that  the  water 
comes  up  to  the  shoulder  of  the  bottle.     After  five  minutes  or 


326     THEORY  AND  PRACTICE  OF  COOKERY 

so,  shake  it  well,  take  out  the  cork,  and  put  on  a  nipple. 
Let  a  few  drops  of  milk  fall  on  your  wrist.  It  should 
feel  a  little  warmer  than  your  flesh.  If  cooler,  warm  it  a 
little  longer.  If  too  hot,  let  it  stand  and  test  it  again. 
Never  put  the  nipple  in  your  mouth.  It  is  well  to  wrap  the 
bottle  in  a  thick  cloth  or  slip  it  into  a  little  woolen  bag  made 
to  fit  it,  in  order  to  keep  the  milk  warm.  If  the  last  of  it 
gets  cold,  the  baby  may  refuse  to  take  it. 

3.  The  best  way  to  give  the  bottle  is  to  hold  it  while  the 
baby  takes  it,  tilting  it  just  enough  to  keep  the  nipple  full 
of  milk.  If  no  one  has  time  to  do  this,  prop  the  bottle 
up  carefully  so  that  the  nipple  will  keep  full  till  all  the  milk 
is  gone.  Otherwise  the  baby  may  swallow  air.  Take  the 
bottle  away  as  soon  as  he  has  taken  all  he  will. 

A  well-nourished  baby  is  plump.     No  baby  should  be  thin. 

But  fat  alone  is  not  proof  of  health.     A  baby  may  be  too 

fat.     The  flesh  should  be  firm.     A  healthy  baby  is  happy. 

He   does   not    cry   much.     He   gains   weight   steadily.     A 

bottle-fed  baby  cannot  be  expected  to  gain  as  fast  as  a 

nursing  baby,  but  if  he  does  not  gain  at  all  something  is 

wrong.     Have  the  best  possible  advice.     Do  not  go  by  the 

way  some  other  baby  is  fed.     Each  baby  is  a  problem  by 

himself. 

Brief  Reference  List 

For  further  development  of  topics  treated  in  this  section 

see:  — 

Cotton  :  Care  of  the  Child. 
Holt  :  Care  and  feeding  of  children. 

Kerley  :  Nutrition  of  school  children.    (Teachers  College  Record,  March, 
1905.) 


FOOD  FOR  BABIES  AND  THE  SICK  327 

Kerley  :  Short  talks  to  young  mothers. 

Dennett:  The  healthy  baby. 

ScHERESCHEWSKY :   Infant  mortality  in  relation  to  infant  feeding.      In 

Hygiene  laboratory  bulletin  56  of  the  U.  S.  Public  health  and  marine 

hospital  service. 
Kastle  and  Roberts.     The  chemistry  of  milk.     (In  the  same.) 
McCollom:  Feeding  of  young  children.      Journal  of  Home  Economics, 

V.  13,  p.  133,  1912. 
Wiley  :  Infant  and  invalid  foods. 

Pattee  :  Practical  dietetics  with  reference  to  diet  in  disease. 
See  also  references  following  section  on  Milk. 

Section  2.     Food  for  the  Sick 

Importance  of  proper  diet  in  cases  of  sickness.  —  Pre- 
paring and  administering  the  patient's  food  is  an  important 
part  of  a  nurse's  work.  Recovery,  in  many  cases,  depends 
more  upon  proper  food  than  upon  medicine.  The  doctor 
will  tell  you  what  to  give  the  patient;  but  the  more  you 
know  about  food,  cooking,  and  digestion,  the  more  intelli- 
gently you  will  be  able  to  carry  out  his  orders. 

Three  kinds  of  diet.  —  Diets  for  the  sick  are  classified  as 
liquid,  light,  and  convalescent.  Liquid  diet  consists  entirely 
of  liquid  food.  In  typhoid  fever,  and  sometimes  in  other 
cases  of  severe  illness,  nothing  but  milk  is  given  for  a  long 
time.  But  usually  beef -juice  or  beef -tea,  broths,  gruels, 
and,  in  fevers,  cooling  drinks  are  included  in  liquid  diet. 
Hot  milk  or  cocoa,  given  at  night,  induces  sleep ;  tea  and 
coffee  are  usually  forbidden  at  all  times,  as  too  stimulating. 
Wine  or  liquor  should  never  be  given  unless  prescribed  by 
the  physician. 

Light  diet  is  used  in  less  severe  illnesses,  or  when  a  patient 


328     THEORY  AND  PRACTICE  OF  COOKERY 

who  has  been  very  sick  begins  to  improve.  It  includes 
everything  belonging  to  liquid  diet,  and,  in  addition,  soft- 
cooked  eggs,  soup,  gelatin  jellies,  soft  puddings,  custards, 
fruit,  and  a  little  game,  poultry,  or  tender  meat. 

Convalescent  diet  includes  all  ordinary  dishes  except  those 
particularly  difficult  of  digestion.  The  change  from  one 
diet  to  another  should  be  made  gradually.  Below  are  given 
examples  of  each  of  these  three  kinds  of  diet. 

Liquid  Diet  for  One  Day  ♦ 

8  A.M Hot  milk,  f  c. 

10  A.M Chicken  broth,  f  c. 

12  A.M Eggnog. 

2  p.M Hot  milk,  |  c. 

4  p.M Buttermilk,  or  Kumiss,  a  glassful. 

6  p.M Chicken  broth,  I  c. 

8  p.M Cocoa,  f  c. 

Light  Diet  for  One  Day 

breakfast 

Poached  egg  on  toast.  Coffee. 

LUNCH 

Soft  custard. 

DINNER 

Broiled  mutton  chop.  Dry  toast. 

LUNCH 

A  glass  of  milk  or  buttermilk. 

SUPPER 

Milk  toast.  Cocoa. 


FOOD   FOR  BABIES  AND   THE  SICK  329 

Convalescent  Diet  for  One  Day 
breakfast 
Cereal  with  cream  and  sugar. 
Minced  chicken  on  toast.  Whole-wheat  muffins. 

Coffee. 

dinner 

Soup  with  rice. 

Broiled  beefsteak.  Baked  potatoes. 

Peas.  Bread  and  butter. 

Snow  pudding. 

Tea  or  coffee. 

SUPPER 

Coddled  eggs.  Toast. 

Lemon  jelly.  Sponge  cake. 

Cocoa. 

Sick  people  fed  like  children.  —  You  see  that  invalids 
have  the  same  sort  of  food  that  children  do,  given  as  it  is  to 
children,  frequently  and  in  small  quantities.  An  alimentary 
canal  weakened  by  illness  can  be  compared  to  an  immature 
one ;  so  there  is  sense  in  reducing  the  diet  of  a  moderately 
sick  patient  to  that  of  a  little  child,  and  the  diet  of  a  very 
sick  person  to  almost  that  of  a  baby.  Never  give  a  patient 
anything  the  doctor  has  forbidden  him  to  eat,  no  matter 
how  much  he  wants  it. 

RECIPES  FOR  GRUELS 
(Review  Chapter  II,  Sec.  3,  Cereals.) 

Serve  gruel  hot  in  a  cup  on  a  small  plate  or  small  tray 
covered  with  a  doily. 


330     THEORY  AND  PRACTICE  OF  COOKERY 

Oatmeal  Gruel 
Oatmeal,  i  c.  Cold  water,  1  qt. 

Salt,  1 1. 

Cook  these  together  in  a  double  boiler  for  two  hours. 
Press  through  a  strainer,  dilute  with  milk  or  cream,  reheat, 
and  serve.  The  well-beaten  white  of  one  egg  stirred  into  the 
gruel  makes  it  more  nutritious. 

CoRNMEAL  Gruel 

(Adapted  from  Miss  Farmer's  Boston  Cooking  School  Cook-book.) 

Cornmeal,  2  tb.  Salt,  1  t. 

Flour,  1  tb.  Cold  water,  about  i  c. 

Boiling  water  or  hot  milk,  3  c. 

Mix  meal,  flour,  and  salt ;  stir  into  them  enough  cold 
milk  or  water  to  make  a  thin  paste  ;  and  pour  this  into  the  hot 
milk  or  water.  If  water  is  used,  cook  one  hour  in  a  saucepan  ; 
if  milk,  three  hours  in  a  double  boiler.  Serve  hot,  diluted 
with  milk  or  cream. 

Shredded-wheat  Gruel 

Shredded-wheat  biscuit,  1.  Boiling  water,  1  pt. 

Salt,  1 1.  Milk,  1  c. 

Cook  biscuit,  salt,  and  water  together  for  twenty  minutes, 
stirring  occasionally.     After  adding  the  milk,  strain. 

EGG   PREPARATIONS 
(See  Chapter  III,  Sec.  1.) 

Raw  eggs  are  often  prescribed..  Break  the  egg  into  a 
glass,  and  let  the  patient  swallow  it  whole. 


FOOD   FOR  BABIES  AND  THE  SICK  331 

Egg  Gruel 

(Adapted  from  Mrs.  Lincoln's  Boston  Cook-hook.) 

Egg,  1.  Hot  milk  (not  scalded),  1  c. 

Sugar,  1 1.  Nutmeg  or  lemon  juice  to  flavor. 

While  the  milk  heats,  beat  the  yolk  of  the  egg  till  thick 

and  light  colored,  the  white  till  stiff.     Stir  into  the  yolk  the 

other  ingredients  in  the  following  order  :  Sugar,  milk,  beaten 

white,  flavoring.     Serve  hot  in  a  glass  placed  on  a  plate 

covered  with  a  doily. 

Eqgnog 

Eggs,  1.  Wine,  1  or  2  tb.,  or 

Sugar,  2  t.  Brandy,  1  t.,  or 

Lemon  juice,  1|  tb.  Nutmeg. 

Beat  the  egg  till  thoroughly  foamy;  stir  in  the  other 
ingredients. 

SpiRRED  Egg 

Break  an  egg  into  a  buttered  cup  or  egg  shirrer ;  let  this 
stand  in  a  pan  of  hot  water  in  the  oven  till  the  white  jellies. 
Season  and  serve  in  the  same  dish  placed  on  a  plate. 

MILK  PREPARATIONS 

(See  Sec.  2  of  Chapter  III,  and  paragraphs  relating  to  Yeast  in  Chap- 
ter IV,  Sec.  4.) 

Milk  diet  may  be  varied  by  giving  the  milk  in  various 
forms ;  e.g.,  fermented,  or  as  milk  punch ;  if  permitted,  in 
milk  jellies  and  ice-cream ;  and  by  serving  it  sometimes  hot, 
sometimes  cold,  and  sometimes  flavored  with  coffee.  When 
plain  milk  does  not  agree  with  the  patient,  a  little  lime-water 
or  a  few  grains  of  salt  is  sometimes  ordered  to  be  put  into  it. 


332     THEORY  AND  PRACTICE  OF  COOKERY 

Albuminized  Milk 

Put  the  white  of  one  egg  and  half  a  cupful  of  milk  into  a 
glass  jar,  cover  tightly,  and  shake  until  well  mixed. 

Peptonized  Milk 

Fairchild's  peptonizing  powder,  1  tubeful.  Cold  water,  I  c. 

Fresh  cold  milk,  1  pt. 

Shake  the  water  and  powder  together  in  a  quart  glass  jar 
or  bottle,  add  the  milk,  and  shake  again.  Set  the  jar  into 
warm  water,  and  keep  it  as  near  130°  F.  as  you  can  for 
twenty  minutes.  Then  put  it  at  once  on  ice.  Serve  with 
grated  nutmeg,  sugar,  or  mineral  water,  as  the  patient  may 
prefer  or  the  doctor  prescribe. 

Fermented  milk.  —  Among  fermented  milks  in  use  are 
so-called  buttermilks,  fermented  by  a  preparation  of  lactic 
acid  bacteria  ^ ;  kephir,  produced  by  a  combination  of 
alcoholic  and  lactic  acid  fermentation ;  and  kumiss,  fer- 
mented by  yeast. 

Kumiss 

Milk,  1  qt.  Lukewarm  water,  1  tb. 

Sugar,  1  tb.  Hot  water,  1  tb. 

Yeast,  I  cake. 

Have  ready  bottles,  cleaned,  sterilized,  and  cooled.  Scald 
the  milk  and  cool  till  lukewarm.  Boil  the  sugar  with  the 
hot  water  till  dissolved.  Mix  the  yeast  with  the  luke- 
warm water.     When  the  syrup  is  cool,  stir  it  and  the  yeast 

1  A  "  pure  culture,"  of  the  one  kind  of  bacteria  desired,  unmixed  with 
any  other. 


FOOD  FOR  BABIES  AND  THE  SICK  333 

into  the  milk.     Pour  at  once  into  bottles,  filling  them  to 

within  one  and  one-half  inches  of  the  top.     Cork  and  shake 

well.     Stand  in  a  warm  room  ten  hours.     Lay  them  down 

in  the  ice-box  for  from  three  to  five 

days.     Slow  fermentation  produces 

the  best  kumiss,  but  if  needed  for 

use    the    day    after    making,    the 

bottles   may   be   allowed  to  stand 

in  the  room  for  six  hours  in  sum-    Fig.  17.  — Method  of  tying 

corks  into  kumiss  bottles, 
mer,   twelve    in   winter,    and    then 

laid  in  the  ice-box  for  twelve  hours.     If  ordinary  bottles 

are  used,  tie  the  corks  down. 

Irish  Moss  Jelly 

Irish  moss,  |  c.  Salt,  f.g. 

Milk,  2  c.  Sugar,  to  suit  patient's  taste. 

After  washing  the  moss,  let  it  soak  in  the  milk  in  a  double 
boiler  one  hour ;  then  cook  until  the  milk  steams,  sweeten, 
and  strain  into  moulds.  When  cold,  turn  out  on  a  colored 
plate,  and  serve  with  cream  and  sugar.  Vanilla  may  be 
used  to  flavor  either  jelly  or  cream,  if  the  doctor  approves. 

Gluten  Wafers 

(See  Chap.  IV,  Sec.  2,  Flour.) 

Cream,  ^  c.         Gluten  flour,  enough  to  make  a  stiff  dough. 
Salt. 

Mix  cream  and  flour,  roll  out  very  thin,  prick  with  a  fork, 
and  sprinkle  Hghtly  with  salt.  Bake  the  wafers  till  crisp 
and  brown. 


334     THEORY  AND  PRACTICE  OF  COOKERY 

MEAT  PREPARATIONS 
(See  Sees.  1  and  2  of  Chapter  VI,  particularly  p.  152  and  154.) 

Nourishing  Beef  Tea 

Lean  beef,  chopped  fine,  1  lb.  Cold  water,  1  pt. 

Flavoring :  bit  of  bay-leaf,  sprig  of  parsley,  shce  of  onion,  stalk  of  celery, 
two  or  three  cloves.  (Any  or  all  of  these  may  be  used  if  approved 
by  the  patient's  physician.)     Salt  and  pepper  to  patient's  taste. 

Let  the  beef  stand  in  the  cold  water  for  two  hours ;  then 
heat  slowly,  stirring,  in  a  double  boiler,  until  it  steams. 
Strain  through  doubled  cheese-cloth  wrung  out  of  cold 
water,  and  season.  This  beef  tea  should  be  bright  red, 
showing  that  it  contains  albumin  in  liquid  form.  The  loss 
of  this  color  shows  that  it  has  been  overheated.  Use  great 
care  in  reheating;  if  the  albumin  coagulates,  strain  it  out. 
Serve  it  in  a  warm  glass,  red  glass  if  the  patient  objects  to 
the  color  of  the  beef  tea. 

Beep-juice 

Directions  for  preparing  beef-juice  are  given  on  p.  151. 
Reheat,  season,  and  serve  like  beef  tea. 

Mutton  Broth 
Neck  of  mutton,  2  lb.  Bit  of  bay-leaf. 

Cold  water,  1  qt.  Small  sprig  of  parsley. 

Salt. 

Cut  the  meat  into  small  pieces,  soak  it  with  the  herbs  one 
hour,  then  simmer  three  hours.  Strain,  cool,  and  remove 
fat.  Reheat  and  salt  a  portion  when  required.  Three 
tahlespoonfuls  of  rice  may  be  boiled  and  served  in  the  strained 
broth. 


FOOD  FOR  BABIES  AND   THE  SICK  335 

Raw  Beef  Sandwiches 
(See  p.  151.) 

Broiled  Beef  Tenderloin 
Over  a  carefully  broiled  slice  of  tenderloin,  squeeze,  with 
a  meat-press  or  lemon-squeezer,  the  juice  of  half  a  pound  of 
beef-round.     Season  with  salt,  and  with  pepper  and  lemon 
juice,  if  the  doctor  approves.     Use  no  butter. 

Chop  Broiled  in  Paper 

Lay  the  chop  between  slices  of  glazed  writing  paper. 
Trim  these  to  within  one  inch  of  the  chop,  and  fold  their 
edges  together,  enclosing  the  chop.  Broil  over  hot  coals, 
turning  often.  The  paper  holds  all  the  juices.  When  the 
chop  is  cooked,  hold  it  over  the  dish  it  is  to  be  served  on 
and  remove  the  paper.     Season  it  and  serve  on  toast. 

Clam  Broth  (one  cupful) 
Large  clams,  6  or  8.  Water,  I  c. 

Scrub  the  clams  well  with  a  brush  and  cold  water. 

Heat  them  with  the  one-fourth  cupful  of  water  in  a 
covered  saucepan  till  their  shells  open.  Boil  for  one  minute 
after  this,  and  strain  through  cheese-cloth.  Serve  undiluted, 
or  add  a  little  hot  water. 

Clam  broth  can  often  be  taken  by  a  patient  who   can 

take  no  other  food. 

Wine  Jelly 
Granulated  gelatin,  1|  tb.  Lemon  juice,  1§  tb. 

Cold  water,  |  c.  '  Sugar,  |  c. 

Boiling  water,  1  c.  Wine  (sherry  or  Madeira),  ^  c. 

Make  like  Lemon  Jelly,  recipe  on  p.  164. 


336     THEORY  AND  PRACTICE  OF  COOKERY 

Irish  Moss  Lemonade 
Irish  moss,  i  c.  Cold  water,  2  c. 

Lemon  juice  and  sugar  to  suit  patient's  taste. 

Soak  the  moss  in  cold  water  till  soft.  Pick  out  dark  bits 
and  foreign  matter.  Cook  it  in  the  two  cupfuls  of  water  in 
a  double  boiler  for  twenty  minutes.  Strain,  flavor,  and 
sweeten.  Use  hot  or  cold  for  patients  with  throat  or  bron- 
chial inflammation. 

Lemon  Whey 
Hot  (not  scalded)  milk,  1  pint. 
Juice  of  2  lemons  (or  6  tablespoonfuls). 

Add  the  lemon  juice  to  the  milk;  when  the  latter  has 
curdled,  strain  it  through  cloth.  Serve  the  whey  hot  or 
cold  in  a  glass. 

The  invalid's  tray.  —  Use  a  tray  just  large  enough  for 
the  dishes  it  is  to  hold.  Cover  it  with  a  spotlessly  clean 
napkin.  Arrange  it  as  if  you  were  setting  a  place  at  the 
table.     Use  the  prettiest  dishes  you  have. 

Except  in  making  jellies,  gruels,  and  other  foods  that 
are  not  injured  by  keeping  or  reheating,  prepare  no  more 
food  than  the  patient  is  likely  to  eat.  No  food  left  by  the 
patient  should  be  served  a  second  time ;  nor  should  food 
that  has  been  in  the  sick-room  be  eaten  by  others. 

Brief  Reference  List 

For  further  development  of  topics  treated  in  this  section 

see:  — 

Pattee  :  Practical  dietetics  with  reference  to  diet  in  disease. 
Wiley  :  Infant  and  invalid  foods. 

Farmer  :  Food  and  cookery  for  the  sick  and  convalescent. 
Hill  :  A  Cook-book  for  nurses. 


CHAPTER  XII 
TEA,  COFFEE,  COCOA 

Review  Chap.  I,  Sec.  2,  Water. 

We  drink  to  quench  thirst.  Thirst  is  the  body's  demand 
for  water.  Water  is  the  best  of  beverages,  other  drinks 
satisfying  thirst  simply  by  means  of  the  water  they  contain. 

A  decoction  is  extracted  by  boiling;  an  infusion,  by 
treatment  with  boiling-hot  water. 

Section  1.    Tea 
a  study  of  tea 

A.  Put  a  teaspoonful  of  tea  in  each  of  two  enamelled-ware  saucepans, 
and  pour  upon  one  a  cupful  of  boiling  water ;  upon  the  other  a  cupful  of 
water  not  quite  boiling  hot.  Let  them  stand  five  minutes.  Which  is 
darker  in  color?  Which  stronger  in  taste?  What  action  has  the  water 
had  on  the  tea?  Which  is  the  best  solvent  of  tea,  boihng,  or  merely  hot 
water?     (Observe  that  in  water  below  the  boihng-point  the  leaves  float.) 

B.  Pour  off  half  the  tea  made  with  boihng  water,  and  let  the  rest 
stand  ten  or  fifteen  minutes  longer.  Meanwhile,  pour  another  cupful 
of  boihng  water  upon  a  spoonful  of  fresh  tea,  and  boil  it  five  minutes. 
What  is  its  color?  taste?  Add  to  this,  to  the  tea  standing  on  the 
leaves,  and  to  the  tea  poured  off,  a  few  drops  of  copper  sulphate.  Does  it 
act  on  all  ahke?  At  what  temperature  should  water  be  for  making  tea? 
How  long  should  it  steep?     Should  it  boil?     Give  your  reasons. 

C.  Take  out  a  few  of  the  wet  tea  leaves  and  unroll  them ;  find,  if  pos- 
sible, an  unbroken  one ;  note  its  pointed  shape  and  notched  edges.     Do 
you  find  other  kinds  of  leaves?     Any  sticks  or  other  foreign  matter?    If 
the  tea  is  Young  Hyson,  Pekoe,  or  other  high-grade  tea,  look  for  buds. 
z  337 


338     THEORY  AND  PRACTICE  OF  COOKERY 

Composition  of  tea.  —  Tea  contains  theine,  a  stimulant ; 
pleasant-flavored  oils;  and  tannin,  a  bitter  substance, 
similar  to  the  tannins  used  in  tanning  leather  and  in  making 
ink.     Tannin  interferes  with  digestion. 

Effect  of  hot  water  on  tea.  —  Boiling  water  poured  over 
tea  dissolves  its  theine  and  flavoring  matter,  making  a 
delicate,  refreshing  drink;  water  below  the  boiling-point 
draws  these  out  imperfectly,  and,  in  consequence,  the  tea 
is  insipid.  Boiling  the  tea,  or  letting  it  stand  long  on  the 
leaves,  extracts  the  tannin.  Tea  made  by  adding  fresh 
water  to  old  leaves  in  a  pot  that  stands  on  the  stove  all  day 
contains  enough  tannin  to  make  it  highly  injurious. 

How  to  have  good  tea.  —  1.  Keep  the  tea  in  a  closely 
covered  glass  jar  or  tin  canister;  if  exposed  to  the  air  it 
loses  flavor.  2.  Use  a  china,  or  silver,  or  earthen  teapot ; 
never  a  tin  one.  3.  Have  the  teapot  hot  and  the  water 
boiling  at  the  moment  the  tea  is  made.  4.  Steep  it  not 
over  five  minutes ;  never  let  it  boil. 

DIRECTIONS  FOR  MAKING  TEA 

Allow  from  one  to  three  teaspoonfuls  of  tea  to  two  cupfuls 
of  water,  using  less  of  close-rolled  than  of  coarse,  loose  teas. 
When  the  water  boils,  scald  the  pot,  put  in  the  tea,  and  pour 
in  the  boiling  water,  and  let  it  stand  covered  from  three  to 
five  minutes.  Unless  all  the  tea  is  to  be  poured  immediately, 
a  tea-ball  or  other  device  should  b^  used  so  that  leaves  can 
be  removed  from  the  infusion.^     Serve  with   sugar,   and 

^  Color  does  not  show  the  strength  of  an  infusion,  the  finest  teas  giving 
a  light  color  even  after  long  steeping ;  it  is  tannin  that  makes  tea  dark. 


TEA,   COFFEE,   COCOA  339 

milk  or  cream,  or  with  sugar  and  thin  slices  of  lemon.  For 
weakening  it,  use  water  as  nearly  as  possible  boiling  hot. 

Iced  tea,  made  weak,  is  a  wholesome  summer  drink. 
Serve  it  strained,  with  lemon  and  powdered  sugar. 

How  tea  is  grown  and  made  ready  for  market.  —  Tea 

consists  of  the  dried  leaves  of  an  evergreen  shrub  native  to 
China.  China,  Japan,  and  India  are  the  chief  tea-growing 
countries.  A  little  tea  is  now  raised  in  the  United  States. 
Tea-plants  naturally  grow  tall,  but  in  a  tea-garden  they 
are  trimmed  to  keep  them  bushy.  Only  buds  and  young 
leaves  are  picked.  The  leaves  tend  to  ferment.  In  making 
green  tea,  fermentation  is  prevented  by  heating  the  freshly 
picked  leaves.  They  are  then  rolled,  ^^  fired  "  (that  is, 
dried  by  artificial  heat),  and  graded  by  sifting.  For  black 
tea,  the  leaves  are  wilted,  rolled,  and  allowed  to  ferment 
before  they  are  fired.  Fermentation  darkens  the  tea  and 
lessens  the  amount  of  tannin. 

Kinds  and  qualities  of  teas.  —  Teas  are  classed  according 
to  the  country  they  come  from,  the  method  of  curing,  and 
the  size  and  quality  of  the  leaf. 

In  China  and  Japan  old-time  methods  are  employed, 
involving  much  handling  of  the  tea.  In  India,  the  use  of 
machinery  makes  the  process  cleanly.  "  Japan  ''  tea  is 
green,  India  and  Ceylon  teas  black  and  strong-flavored. 
Oolong  is  less  fermented  than  other  black  teas.  "  English 
Breakfast  tea  "  is  a  trade  name  for  a  blend  (mixture)  of 
black  teas.  Pekoe  is  a  name  applied  to  leaves  from  the 
young  shoot.  Souchong  to  the  next  larger  leaves.     Flowery 


340     THEORY  AND  PRACTICE  OF  COOKERY 

Pekoe  and  Orange  Pekoe  are  fine  grades  of  India  teas. 
Hyson  indicates  that  the  tea  was  picked  in  the  spring. 

Section  2.     Coffee 

A  study  of  coffee.  —  A.  Compare  roasted  with  unroasted  coffee  beans, 
observing  differences  in  color,  odor,  and  taste.  Brown  a  few  unroasted 
beans  on  a  pan  or  shovel  over  the  fire,  and  compare  them  with  the 
roasted  ones.     What  changes  does  roasting  produce  in  coffee  ? 

B.  Boil  together  for  ten  minutes  one  rounded  tablespoonful  of  coffee 
and  one  cupful  of  water;  compare  taste  with  that  of  coffee  made  by 
either  of  the  methods  given  below.  In  what  respect  is  long-boiled  coffee 
like  boiled  tea  ? 

Coffee  —  on  the  plantation  and  in  the  market.  —  The 

coffee  ''  bean/'  or  berry  ^  is  the  seed  of  the  red  cherry  like 
fruit  of  a  tropical  evergreen.  Each  fruit  usually  contains 
two  berries.  When  the  fruit  begins  to  shrivel,  it  is  shaken 
to  the  ground  and  dried  until  the  seeds  can  be  easily  sep- 
arated from  the  pulp.  The  seeds  are  run  between  wooden 
rollers  to  crack  off  the  husk  enclosing  them,  after  which 
they  are  roasted  in  a  revolving  cylinder.  Great  care  is 
taken  to  have  the  degree  of  heat  that  will  best  develop  their 
characteristic  flavor  and  odor,  or  aroma. 

The  berry  is  freed  from  pulp  and  papery  skin  by  different 
methods  in  different  countries.  The  color  of  the  raw  berry 
ranges  through  various  shades  of  yellow  and  green.  Coffee 
is  shipped  raw  and  roasted  in  the  country  which  imports 
it.  Roasting  turns  it  brown.  A  long  or  "  high  "  roast 
produces  a  dark  coffee  with  a  strong  flavor  and  develops  its 
characteristic  flavor  and  odor,  or  aroma. 

Coffee  is  believed  to  have  originated  in  Abyssinia.     It 


TEA,   COFFEE,   COCOA  341 

now  grows  in  South  and  Central  America,  Mexico,  the  East 
and  the  West  Indies,  and  some  other  places.  Most  of  our 
coffee  comes  from  Brazil.  Java  and  Mocha  (an  Arabian 
port)  have  always  exported  fine  coffees,  but  not  in  sufficient 
quantities  to  meet  the  demand  for  them.  These  names  are 
now  applied  by  grocers  to  the  better  grade  coffees,  whatever 
their  source.  Ground  coffee  is  sometimes  adulterated  with 
ground  cereals,  chicory,  or  other  material. 

Test  for  adulteration  in  coffee.  —  Pour  on  to  about  a 
tablespoonful  of  ground  coffee  a  cupful  of  cold  water.  If 
nearly  all  the  coffee  floats  and  colors  the  water  very  slowly, 
it  is  pure.  If  part  of  the  ^^  coffee  ''  sinks  to  the  bottom  or 
stains  the  water  quickly,  chicory  or  some  other  adulterant 
is  present. 

The  beverages  tea  and  coffee  have  no  food  value  beyond 
that  of  the  sugar  or  sugar  and  cream  added  to  them.  Their 
stimulating  properties  are  due  to  a  substance  called  theine 
in  tea  and  caffeine  in  coffee.  The  tannin  of  coffee  is  in  a 
different  form  from  that  of  tea.  Coffee  may  be  boiled,  but 
if  allowed  to  boil  or  to  stand  on  the  grounds  for  more  than 
a  few  minutes,  tannin  will  be  extracted  and  the  coffee  will 
taste  bitter.  Tea  and  coffee  relieve  the  feeling  of  fatigue 
and  enable  a  person  to  work  for  a  short  time  harder  than  his 
natural  strength  would  permit.  This  effect  is  more  marked 
upon  some  people  than  upon  others.  To  some  persons  they 
are  injurious.  They  serve  best  if  reserved  for  emergencies, 
times  of  special  fatigue  or  strain.  No  person  of  normal 
constitution  who  is  neither  undernourished  nor  overworked 
needs  to  depend  habitually  on  any  stimulant.     Children 


342     THEORY  AND  PRACTICE  OF  COOKERY 

should  never  taste  tea  or  coffee.  Young  people  up  to  twenty 
years  of  age  or  more  are  better  off  without  them.  The  evil 
effect  of  tea  and  coffee  may  appear  in  later  life  if  not  im- 
mediately. A  special  coffee  from  which  practically  all  the 
caffeine  has  been  removed  is  sold  unground. 

Substitutes  for  coffee  made  of  roasted  grains  are  palatable, 
and  as  a  rule  wholesome  for  grown  people  and  children. 

How  to  have  good  coffee.  —  1.  Buy  freshly  roasted, 
unground  coffee,  and  grind  it  at  home  as  needed ;  or  buy 
it  freshly  ground  every  two  or  three  days.  The  longer  it  is 
kept  after  roasting,  particularly  if  ground,  the  more  of  its 
aroma  does  it  lose.  2.  Keep  in  an  air-tight  can  or  jar. 
3.  Never  make  coffee  in  a  tin  pot.  Scour  the  pot,  not 
omitting  the  spout,  after  each  using.  4.  Either  filter  the 
coffee,  or  boil  it  not  longer  than  three  minutes.  5.  Have 
coffee  powdered  for  filtering,  finely  ground  for  boiling.  6. 
Serve  with  cream,  or  with  hot,  but  not  scalded,  milk. 

Boiled  Coffee 
Ground  coffee,  ^  c. 
Water,  3  or  3^  c. 
One-fourth  the  white  of  an  egg,  or  one  egg-shell  with  the  white  that 
clings  to  it. 

(See  directions  for  clearing  soup  stock,  p.  167.) 

Mix  the  coffee,  the  white  of  egg,  or  the  broken  shell,  and 
about  one  cup  of  the  water  (cold).  Pour  on  the  rest  of  the 
water,  allow  it  to  heat  slowly  to  the  boiling-point.  Let  it 
boil  one  minute.  Remove  the  pot  from  the  fire,  pour  in  a 
few  spoonfuls  of  cold  water,  and  let  the  coffee  stand  about 
five  minutes,  during  which  the  grounds  will  settle. 


TEA,  COFFEE,  COCOA  343 

Another  way.  —  After  mixing  coffee,  egg,  and  cold  water, 
pour  on  the  rest  of  the  water  boiling  hot,  and  let  the  coffee 
boil  three  minutes.     Settle  in  the  same  way. 

To  make  one  cup  of  coffee,  use  two  rounded  tablespoonfuls 
of  coffee  and  one  cupful  of  water.  With  care,  a  small 
quantity  of  coffee  can  be  cleared  without  egg,  by  pouring  in 
a  little  cold  water  as  directed  above. 

Filtered  Coffee 

Powdered  coffee,  |  c. 
Boiling  water,  3  c. 

Use  a  coffee  pot  with  bag  or  filter. 

Measure  the  water  before  boiling  it.  Put  the  coffee  into 
the  bag  or  filter.  Pour  the  water  slowly  upon  it  directly 
from  the  kettle.  Keep  it  hot,  till  the  water  poured  in  has 
filtered  through.  Pour  part  of  it  out,  and  turn  it  through 
the  filter  again.  This  makes  black  coffee,  suitable  for  serv- 
ing in  small  cups  after  dinner.  Make  breakfast  coffee  less 
strong. 

Section  3.    Cocoa  and  Chocolate^ 

The  cocoa  tree ;  preparation  of  the  bean  for  market.  — 
All  cocoa  and  chocolate  preparations  (Cacao  theohroma)  are 
products  of  the  seeds  of  the  cocoa-tree,  a  native  of  the  tropic 
parts  of  America.  These  seeds,  called  cocoa  beans,  are 
about  the  size  of  almonds.     They  lie  encased  in  shells,  sur- 

1  A  confusing  use  of  terms  has  resulted  from  retaining  both  the  name 
chocolate,  by  which  plant  and  beverage  were  known  to  the  natives  of 
Mexico,  and  cocoa,  a  changed  form  of  cacao,  the  name  given  to  them  by 
the  Spanish.  The  cocoa  tree  belongs  to  a  different  family  from  the  cocoa- 
nut  palm. 


344     THEORY  AND  PRACTICE  OF  COOKERY 

rounded  by  fibrous  pulp,  in  a  brownish  yellow  pod  which 
grows  to  be  from  six  to  twelve  inches  long.  The  pods  as 
they  ripen  are  cut  off  with  knives  fastened  on  poles,  and 
are  left  on  the  ground  for  twenty-four  hours  to  dry.  The 
beans  and  pulp  are  then  removed  and  allowed  to  ferment 
for  several  days.  Fermentation  loosens  the  pulp  and  the 
skin  of  the  bean  and  prevents  germination  (sprouting). 
It  also  darkens  the  beans  and  mellows  their  flavor.  After 
they  have  been  washed  and  thoroughly  dried,  they  are 
packed  in  sacks  for  shipping. 

Manufacture  of  cocoas  and  chocolates.  —  At  the  factory 
the  beans  are  cleaned,  sorted,  and  roasted.  The  shells  are 
cracked  off  and  the  beans  crushed  into  the  irregular  bits  we 
know  as  cocoa  nibs  or  cracked  cocoa.  The  papery  husks  are 
winnowed  out.  These  are  sold  as  cocoa  shells.  If  the  nibs 
are  to  be  made  into  either  chocolate  or  powdered  cocoa,  they 
are  ground  between  slightly  warmed  stones.  They  contain 
so  much  fat  that  the  warmth  and  grinding  reduce  them  to 
paste  (p.  214).  If  this  paste  or  "  cocoa-mass  "  is  to  be  made 
into  powdered  cocoa,  more  than  half  the  fat  is  extracted. 
The  dry  substance  left  is  sifted,  ground,  and  put  up  in  tins. 
If  chocolate  is  to  be  made,  the  fat  is  left  in.  Sometimes  more 
is  added.  The  paste  is  made  smooth  and  fine  by  passing  it 
between  pairs  of  rollers.  It  may  then  be  moulded.  This 
makes  plain  chocolate.  For  sweet  chocolate,  sugar,  vanilla, 
and  sometimes  spice,  are  added  before  moulding.  For  milk 
chocolate,  milk,  either  condensed  or  dried  and  powdered,  is 
added  besides  sugar  and  vanilla.  Dutch  powdered  cocoas 
are  treated  with  alkalies.     This  process  is  not  altogether 


TEA,   COFFEE,   COCOA  345 

desirable.  Cheap  chocolate  may  be  adulterated  with  starch 
and  cocoa  husks.  The  extracted  fat,  called  cocoa-butter, 
is  valuable. 

Composition  and  food  value  of  cocoa  and  chocolate.  — 
Chocolate  is  a  food.  An  average  sample  of  roasted  cocoa 
contains  about  9%  of  starch,  15%  of  nitrogenous  matter, 
and  50%  of  fat.  (Observe  fat-globules  on  chocolate  that  has 
been  standing.)  It  contains  a  very  little  caffeine  and  more 
theobromine,  a  substance  similar  to  caffeine,  also  a  tannin- 
like substance.  It  is  somewhat  stimulating,  but  it  does  not 
interfere  with  digestion  as  tea  and  coffee  do.  Milk  chocolate 
and  sweet  chocolate  are  compact  foods  for  trampers,  ex- 
plorers, and  soldiers.  The  sugar  in  it  increases  its  food 
value.  Not  enough  cocoa  is  used  in  making  a  beverage, 
however,  to  give  it  any  appreciable  food  value,  beyond  that 
of  the  milk  and  sugar  in  it.  Generally  speaking,  it  is  whole- 
some, even  for  children  and  the  sick.  Chocolate  makes  a 
more  nutritious  beverage,  but  is  too  rich  in  fat  for  constant 
use.     Cocoa  shells  makes  a  wholesome  cheap  drink. 

Cocoa  is  insoluble,  but  when  boiled  with  water  the  starch 
thickens  sufficiently  to  keep  the  other  solid  particles  sus- 
pended. So-called  "  soluble  cocoas  "  are  so  prepared  that 
they  remain  in  suspension  longer  than  other  kinds. 

Cocoa  Made  from  Cracked  Cocoa 

Cracked  cocoa  (or  cocoa  and  cocoa  shells),  ^  c. 
Boiling  water,  3  pt. 

Boil  cocoa  and  water  together  for  two  hours  or  more ; 
strain  and  serve  with  milk  and  sugar.     Since  cocoa  made  in 


346  THEORY  AND   PRACTICE  OF  COOKERY 

this  way  improves  by  cooking,  do  not  throw  away  what  is 

left  in  the  pot,  but  add  each  day  more  water  and  a  little 

fresh  cocoa,  and  boil  again.     Once  a  week  empty  and  clean 

the  pot. 

Breakfast  Cocoa 

I  Scalded  milk,  1  pt.  Prepared  cocoa,  3  tb. 

Boiling  water,  1  pt.  Sugar,  3  tb. 

Mix  the  cocoa  and  sugar  in  a  saucepan  ;  stir  in  the  water 
gradually,  and  boil  five  minutes ;  add  the  milk  and  cook 
five  minutes  longer,  or  until  smooth  and  free  from  any  raw 
taste.  Beat  well  with  a  Dover  egg-beater  to  prevent 
albuminous  skin  from  forming. 

To  make  cocoa  which  will  not  settle  on  standing,  mix 
thoroughly  half  a  tablespoonful  of  cornstarch  with  the 
cocoa  and  sugar.     This  makes  a  smooth,  creamy  beverage. 

Chocolate 
Chocolate,  2  squares.  Boiling  water,  1  c. 

Sugar,  4  tb.  Hot  milk,  3  c. 

Cut  the  chocolate  into  bits.  Melt  it  in  a  saucepan  set 
over  hot  water.  Add  the  sugar  and  water,  stirring  till 
smooth.  Pour  into  this  part  of  the  milk,  then  pour  the 
chocolate  back  into  the  rest  of  the  milk,  and  stir  till  it 
comes  to  the  boiling-point.  Beat  till  frothy  with  an  egg- 
whisk  or  a  Dover  beater. 

For  a  luncheon  or  for  afternoon  tea  serve  in  tall  cups. 
It  is  customary  to  put  a  spoonful  of  whipped  cream  (lOl) 
on  the  top  of  each  cup.  Why  would  it  be  more  sensible  to 
add  cream  to  cocoa,  not  to  chocolate  ? 


TEA,   COFFEE,   COCOA  347 

Brief  Reference  List 

For  further  development  of  topics  treated  in  this  section 
see :  — 

Ward:  Grocers'  encyclopedia. 

Sherman  :  Food  products.    Pp.  465,  466. 

Hutchison:  Food  and  the  principles  of  dietetics.  Ch.  18,  p.  332, 
Effects  of  tea,  coffee,  and  cocoa. 

Richards  :  Tonics  and  stimulants.  (Health  Educational  League.  Book- 
let no.  11.) 

Olsen:  Pure  food.    Pp.  106-116. 

Whymper  :  Cocoa  and  chocolate. 


CHAPTER  XIII 
THE   SERVING   OF  FOOD 

Section  1.     Table  Service 

Food  tastes  better  for  being  nicely  served.  A  tired  or 
delicate  person  may  be  unable  to  eat  food  placed  on  smeary 
dishes  set  irregularly  on  a  crumpled,  spotted  cloth,  when 
she  would  eat  heartily  of  the  same  food  neatly  arranged. 
Every  meal  can  be  made  appetizing  even  though  it  consists 
of  a  single  dish  eaten  from  a  kitchen  table.  A  well-cooked 
dish  may  be  spoiled  by  bad  serving,  as  when  chops  are  put 
in  cold  plates,  salads  on  warm  ones ;  when  an  omelet  is 
allowed  to  stand  until  it  falls,  or  a  sauce  is  not  passed  till 
the  food  it  belongs  with  is  cold  or  has  been  partly  eaten. 

The  suggestions  given  below  assume  conditions  desirable, 
but  not  all  of  them  necessary,  for  good  serving.  If  your 
home  lacks  some  of  these,  do  your  best  with  what  you  have, 
remembering  that  the  most  important  thing,  next  to  having 
wholesome  food,  is  to  have  the  meal  a  pleasant,  cheerful 
occasion  for  all  the  family. 

If  your  family  cook  and  eat  in  the  same  room,  make  it  as 
orderly  as  possible  before  calling  them  to  the  table.  It  is 
well  to  have  a  screen  to  hide  the  stove,  sink,  and  cooking- 
table  at  meal-times. 

348 


THE  SERVING  OF  FOOD  349 

Importance  of  regular  meals.  —  Have  meals  served 
regularly.  Do  not  habitually  let  members  of  the  family 
take  a  bit  of  food  or  a  cup  of  tea  whenever  they  happen  to 
come  in.  This  is  not  only  bad  for  health,  but  destructive 
of  home  life.  If  the  family  cannot  all  meet  at  breakfast 
and  at  the  noon  meal,  be  the  more  particular  to  have  the 
third  meal  nicely  set  out  and  to  have  all  sit  down  to  it 
together. 

Take  sufficient  time  for  meals.  Business  men,  working- 
people,  school-children,  and  college  students  break  down 
in  health  from  eating  hastily. 

The  dining-room  should  be  so  furnished  that  it  can  easily 
be  kept  clean.  The  floor  should  be  polished  or  stained  and 
a  rug,  not  a  tacked-down  carpet,  should  be  used.  Wooden, 
cane-seated,  or  leather-cushioned  chairs  are  suitable.  Round 
tables  are  pretty.  If  a  square-cornered  one  is  used,  it  should 
not  be  less  than  four  feet  broad.  Quaint  or  beautiful  china 
and  glassware  adorn  a  dining-room,  but  dishes  for  use  must 
be  kept  out  of  the  dust. 

If  the  dining-room  is  used  as  a  living-room  also,  see  that 
it  is  put  in  order  before  each  meal  and  that  the  table  is 
cleared  and  properly  covered  afterward.  If  used  only  as  a 
dining-room,  the  table  may,  to  save  trouble,  remain  partially 
set. 

Fresh  air  whets  the  appetite.  Always  open  the  windows 
for  a  few  minutes  before  each  meal.  In  southern  California 
people  often  eat  on  a  porch.  This  may  be  done  anywhere 
in  mild  weather,  if  there  is  a  porch  convenient  to  the  kitchen. 
It  should  be  screened  to  keep  out  flies. 


350  THEORY  AND  PRACTICE  OF  COOKERY 

HOW  TO  LAY  THE  TABLE 

Table  linen.  —  First  lay  a  "  silence-cloth  ''  (felt  or  thick 
canton  flannel  or  a  quilted  pad)  to  protect  the  wood  and 
make  the  table-cloth  look  and  wear  better.  Lay  the  table- 
cloth with  its  middle  crease  straight  down  the  middle  of  the 
table.  See  that  the  ends  hang  evenly.  Doilies  and  a 
centre-piece,  or  strips  of  crash  or  of  figured  Japanese  towel- 
ing are  desirable  for  breakfast  or  lunch.  With  these  asbestos 
mats  in  linen  cases  or  knitted  mats  must  be  used  under  hot 
dishes.  Under  some  conditions  the  sensible  housekeeper 
will  use  white  table  oilcloth.  If  the  table  is  otherwise  well 
set,  it  will  look  well.     Wash  it  off  after  each  meal. 

Table  decorations.  —  Fruit  or  flowers  always  look  well  in 
the  centre  of  the  table.  Nothing  else  should  ever  be  placed 
there.  If  a  lamp  must  be  on  the  table,  have  it  at  one  side, 
shaded.  If  candlesticks  are  used,  place  them  symmetrically 
at  equal  distances  from  the  centre.  Four  candles  should 
stand  at  the  four  corners  of  an  imaginary  square.  For 
entertaining  formally,  more  decoration  is  allowable.  But 
even  then,  avoid  elaborate  and  showy  arrangements.  Heavy 
plain  linen,  sprays  of  smilax,  holly,  or  whatever  appropriate 
floral  decoration  the  hostess  can  afford,  produce  a  better 
effect  than  the  lace,  ribbon,  favors,  and  general  '^  fussiness  " 
sometimes  seen. 

If  meat  is  to  be  carved  on  the  table,  spread  a  large  napkin 

or  a  carving-cloth  at  the  carver^s  place.     If  a  hot  drink  is  to 

be  poured  by  the  hostess,^  spread  a  tray-cloth  (or  a  napkin)  at 

1  For  brevity,  the  master  and  mistress  of  the  house  will  be  called  the 
host  and  hostess. 


PLATE  XVI. 


Table  Set  for  Dinner. 


i^m 

3 

SaljCo'-P-Lates,  'Di-^s  -^.  .  Di=iii--,  AND  Otiu:r  'I'niNds  to  hk  used  in  the 
Course  of  the  Dinner,'  arranged  on  Sideboard  or  Serving-table. 


THE  SERVING  OF  FOOD  351 

her  place.  If  doilies  are  used  under  small  dishes,  arrange 
them  symmetrically. 

What  goes  at  each  place.  —  At  each  place  lay  a  knife 
with  its  sharp  edge  toward  the  right.  At  the  right  of  the 
knife  lay,  if  needed,  a  soup  spoon  or  a  cereal  spoon,  the 
hollow  of  the  bowl  upward,  and  teaspoons,  as  many  as  will 
be  needed.  At  the  left  of  the  plate  lay  a  fork  (or  two,  or 
three,  according  to  the  number  of  courses  to  be  eaten 
with  forks),  the  tines  pointing  upward ;  at  the  left  of  the 
fork  a  napkin.  Put  the  tumbler,  right  side  up,  at  the 
right  and  the  butter  plate  or  the  bread-and-butter  plate 
at  the  left.  If  butter  spreaders  are  used,  place  them 
as  shown  in  the  diagram.  A  good  rule  is  to  place  the 
tumbler  a  little  to  the  right  of  the  point  of  the  knife,  the 
butter  plate  a  little  to  the  left  of  the  point  of  the  fork.  If 
individual  salts  and  peppers  are  used,  set  them  in  front  of 
each  plate. 

If  tea  or  coffee  is  poured  on  the  table,  arrange  in  front 
of  the  hostess  cream-pitcher,  sugar-bowl,  waste-bowl,  and 
cups  and  saucers  (each  cup  upright  in  its  saucer  if  there  is 
room).  Tiles  (or  small  plates)  should  be  placed  for  coffee 
or  tea  pot  and  hot-water  pot. 

If  the  family  serve  themselves  wholly  or  in  part,  lay 
convenient  to  each  person  who  is  to  serve,  the  spoons  or 
other  implements  he  will  need.  Hot  plates  may  be  piled  at 
the  left  of  the  person  who  serves  the  principal  dish.  Extra 
dishes,  spoons,  etc.  should  be  arranged  upon  the  side-board 
or  upon  a  side-table  covered  with  white  linen.  If  a  maid 
waits  she  may  bring  carving-tools,  spoons,  etc.  when  she 


352     THEORY  AND  PRACTICE  OF  COOKERY 

brings  the  dishes.  Mats  or  tiles  should  be  provided  to 
protect  table  and  side-board  from  hot  dishes. 

Other  preparations  for  the  meal.  —  Have  butter  cut  in 
a  block  or  made  into  balls  ready  in  a  cool  place.  Slice 
bread  (with  loaf  on  its  side  so  that  straight  bottom  edge 
is  from  you,  to  guide  the  eye)  and  keep  it  where  it  will  not 
dry.  Put  these  and  the  drinking-water  on  the  table  the 
last  thing,  placing  them  near  the  corners. 

When  everything  needed  for  the  meal  is  at  hand  and 
space  is  clear  in  pantry  or  kitchen  to  set  dishes  as  they  are 
removed  from  the  table,  announce  the  meal.  In  families 
living  simply,  a  bell  may  be  rung ;  where  there  is  a  waitress, 
she  goes  to  the  room  where  the  hostess  is  and  says  quietly, 
^^  Dinner  (or  breakfast,  or  lunch)  is  served. ^^  Even  where 
only  one  maid  is  kept,  she  should  do  this  when  guests  have 
been  invited  to  the  meal. 

In  laying  knives  and  forks  for  several  courses  arrange 
them  in  the  order  in  which  they  are  to  be  used,  the  first 
to  be  taken  up  being  farthest  from  the  plate.  Oyster  forks 
belong  at  the  right  hand. 

Fresh  napkins  (not  in  rings)  may  be  laid  on  the  plates, 
with  a  corner  towards  the  centre  of  the  table.  If  they 
bear  an  initial  or  monogram  see  that  it  is  right  side  up. 
Never  fold  napkins  in  fancy  shapes.  A  roll,  or  bread  cut 
thick  to  be  eaten  with  soup,  may  be  laid  either  between  the 
folds  of  the  napkin  or  at  the  left  of  the  forks. 

Note. — Table-laying  gives  you  a  chance  to  apply  what  you  have 
learned  in  school  about  the  meaning  of  the  terms ''  parallel,"  "  opposite," 
"at  right  angles,"  and  the  like.     Places  on  opposite  sides  of  the  table 


THE  SERVING  OF  FOOD  353 

should  be  laid  exactly  opposite  one  another,  the  knife  at  one  place  being 
in  the  same  straight  hne  with  the  fork  at  the  other.  If  you  can  measure 
by  your  eye  in  drawing  you  can  lay  a  place  exactly  in  the  middle  of  one 
side  of  the  table  and  can  have  every  tumbler  in  the  same  relative  position 
to  the  plate  near  which  it  stands.  Should  you  fortunately  have  a 
choice  of  table-ware,  use  care  in  selecting  and  arranging  the  pieces  for  a 
meal,  just  as  you  would  in  making  an  original  design. 

Finger-bowls  may  be  used  after  a  fruit-course  at  break- 
fast and  after  dessert.  Fill  them  one-third  full  of  water 
at  room-temperature,  and  set  them  on  small  plates  on  which 
doilies  have  been  laid.  At  dessert-time  place  one  before 
each  guest.  The  guest  will  remove  bowl  and  doily,  leaving 
the  plate  for  dessert.  Sometimes  a  spoon  and  a  fork  are 
laid  on  the  plate,  to  left  and  right  of  the  bowl.  The  guest 
also  removes  these.  If  fruit  is  at  each  place  when  the  guests 
come  to  breakfast,  the  finger-bowl,  with  or  without  a  plate 
and  doily,  may  be  placed  in  front  and  to  the  left  of  each 
place. 

Note  to  Teacher.  —  Ways  of  serving  meals  vary  with  conditions  and 
change  with  time.     Use  a  recent  hand-book  as  a  guide  in  this  matter. 

GENERAL  RULES   FOR   WAITING   ON  TABLE 

Whether  a  daughter  of  the  house  or  a  waitress  waits  on 
the  table,  these  rules  hold  good. 

Prepare  for  the  meal  so  carefully  and  during  it  watch 
so  attentively  that  nothing  will  have  to  be  asked  for.  Fill 
glasses  to  within  three-fourths  of  an  inch  from  the  top  as 
soon  as  people  are  seated  and  keep  them  filled.  Offer  bread, 
butter,  or  a  relish  (as  celery,  pickles,  jelly)  at  any  time  to 
any  one  who  has  eaten  the  portion  he  had. 
2a 


354     THEORY  AND  PRACTICE  OF  COOKERY 

How  to  pass  food.  —  Carry  plates  and  dishes  on  a  small 
round  or  oval  tray  covered  with  a  doily.  When  waiting 
to  take  a  plate  or  cup  from  the  person  filling  it,  stand  at  the 
left. 

It  is  proper  to  serve  the  hostess  first,  so  that  guests 
not  quite  sure  what  to  do  may  follow  her  example.  Serve 
the  others  in  order,  but  do  not  serve  the  same  person  first 
all  the  time.  Offer  at  the  left  a  dish  that  may  be  accepted 
or  refused,  holding  it  low  enough  for  the  guest  to  help  himself 
easily.  Place  from  the  right  a  plate  with  food  upon  it  or 
anything  about  which  no  choice  is  to  be  made,  except  when 
an  extra  plate,  for  asparagus,  for  example,  is  used.  Place 
this  at  the  person's  left  before  offering  the  asparagus.  As 
soon  as  possible  after  the  main  dish  of  a  course  has  been 
served  pass  whatever  vegetables,  sauce,  or  other  things  are 
to  be  eaten  with  it. 

Clearing  the  table.  —  Remove  everything  pertaining  to 
one  course  before  serving  the  next,  taking  first  food,  second, 
soiled  dishes,  third,  clean  dishes.  Relishes  may  be  left 
throughout  the  meal  until  the  dessert.  Remove  soiled  plates, 
from  the  right,  one  at  a  time,  if  you  can  take  time,  but  at  an 
informal  meal,  you  may  pile  them  on  the  tray,  laying 
knives  and  forks  on  the  tray  beside  them.  If  bread  has 
been  laid  on  the  table  to  be  eaten  with  soup,  remove  the 
fragments  on  a  plate  after  taking  away  the  soup-plates. 
Before  bringing  dessert  remove  crumbs  with  scraper  and 
crumb-tray  or  napkin  and  plate. 

Work    noiselessly,  avoiding  rattling  of  dishes  or  silver. 


THE  SERVING  OF  FOOD  355 

GENERAL  RULES   FOR   DISHING   UP 

1.  Have  serving-dishes  and  plates  for  hot  food  hot,  for 
cold  food  cold.     To  heat  a  dish  quickly,  dip  it  into  hot  water.^ 

2.  Use  dishes  suitable  in  size  and  shape  for  the  food  they 
are  to  contain.  Use  covered  dishes  whenever  possible 
except  for  food  desired  crisp  or  dry  (boiled  potatoes,  griddle- 
cakes,  bacon).  Use  a  shallow  flat-rimmed  platter  for  meat 
to  be  carved,  and  deeper  one  for  fricassee  or  stew. 

3.  Baking-dishes  hot  from  the  oven  must  be  set  on  plates 
to  protect  cloth  and  table.  Pin  around  baking-dishes  of 
coarse  ware  a  napkin  folded  diagonally  into  a  band  broad 
enough  to  conceal  the  dish. 

4.  Serve  croquettes,  boiled  corn,  and  baked  potatoes, 
on  a  napkin. 

5.  Make  each  dish  as  attractive  as  you  can.  A  simple 
garnish  makes  a  plain  dish  seem  nicer,  and  takes  little  time. 
Do  not  garnish  too  lavishly ;  a  few  sprigs  of  parsley  are 
prettier  than  a  border. 

Brief  Reference  List 

For  further  development  of  topics  treated  in  this  section 

see :  — 

Earle  :  Home  life  in  colonial  days.     Ch.  4,  The  serving  of  meals. 
Van  de  Water  :  From  kitchen  to  garret.     Ch.  2,  The  dining-room. 
Barrows  :  Principles  of  cookery.     P.  18,  Directions  for  waitresses. 
Springsteed  :  The  expert  waitress.     For  servants. 

Hill  :  Practical  cooking  and  serving.     (See  ch.  6,  Hospitality  and  enter- 
taining, for  instructions  for  formal  serving.) 
Hill  :  Up-to-date  waitress.     (For  laundering  of  table-linen,  see  p.  134.) 

^  The  use  of  casserole-dishes  and  other  attractive  dishes  in  which  the 
food  may  be  both  cooked  and  served  saves  work  for  the  housekeeper. 


356  THEORY  AND  PRACTICE  OF  COOKERY 

Section  2.     Preparing  Meals 

A  Breakfast 

Menu 

Grape-fruit. 

Oatmeal.  Cream  or  milk. 

Soft-cooked  eggs.     Bacon.    Whole-wheat  muffins. 

Coffee. 

Allow  one  hour  after  the  fire  is  well  started  to  prepare 
this  breakfast. 

For  recipes  and  directions  for  preparing  oatmeal,  see 
pp.  74  and  79,  for  grape-fruit,  p.  232,  coffee,  p.  342,  eggs, 
p.  88,  bacon,  p.  218,  whole-wheat  muffins,  p.  113. 

SUGGESTIONS   FOR   ORDER   OF   WORK 

1.  Set  the  tea-kettle  filled  with  fresh  water  where  it 
will  heat  quickly  and  the  double  boiler  containing  the  oat- 
meal, cooked  the  day  before,  where  the  contents  will  cook 
slowly  or  merely  keep  hot  as  may  be  required. 

2.  Lay  the  table.     (See  p.  350.) 

3.  Grease  muffin-pans. 

Mix  the  muffins.  (How  long  are  they  to  bake?  How 
long  will  it  take  you  to  mix  them?  How  long  then  before 
breakfast  time  should  you  begin  them?) 

4.  Prepare  grape-fruit  (if  it  has  not  been  done  before). 

5.  Cut  the  butter.  Put  milk  and  cream  in  pitchers,  and 
set  them  in  ice-box.  (It  is  best  to  have  one  pitcher  of 
cream  for  the  coffee  and  one  for  the  cereal.) 

6.  Grind  the  coffee  (if  it  is  not  already  ground).  Measure 
it.     Have  coffee-pot  ready. 


THE  SERVING  OF  FOOD  357 

7.  Put  dishes  to  warm ;  platter  for  bacon,  covered  dish 
for  cereal  (unless  it  is  to  be  served  from  the  kitchen),  plate 
for  muffins,  breakfast-plates,  cereal  dishes,  and  egg-cups. 

8.  Put  eggs  to  cook  (and  remember  to  take  them  out  at 
the  right  time). 

9.  Cook  bacon.  If  it  can  all  be  cooked  at  once,  it  will 
take  about  eight  minutes. 

10.  Ten  minutes  before  breakfast  time,  make  the  coffee. 
If  hot  milk  is  to  be  served  with  it,  heat  this  now. 

11.  Set  butter,  cream,  cold  milk,  and  grape-fruit  on  the 
table.     Fill  glasses. 

12.  Announce  the  breakfast. 

A  Dinner 

Menu 
Tomato  soup. 
Roasted  leg  of  lamb  with  mint  sauce.        Green  peas. 

Boiled  potatoes  with  parsley. 

Lettuce  with  French  dressing.  Cheesed  crackers. 

Caramel  custards. 

Coffee. 

Allow  two  hours  to  prepare  this  dinner,  if  custard  has 
been  made  beforehand.  If  places  for  more  than  four  must 
be  set,  or  if  extra  china  and  linen  must  be  taken  out,  begin 
earlier  and  partly  lay  the  table  before  putting  the  meat  in 
the  oven. 

For  recipes  and  directions  for  Tomato  Soup,  see  p.  256, 
for  Boiled  Potatoes,  p.  59,  for  Lettuce  with  French  Dressing, 
pp.  259-261,  for  Cheesed  Crackers,  p.  102,  for  Caramel 
Custard,  p.  284,  and  for  Coffee  (filtered),  p.  343. 


358     THEORY  AND  PRACTICE  OF  COOKERY 

Pour  just  enough  melted  butter  over  the  potatoes  to  coat 
them,  and  sprinkle  lightly  with  finely  cut  parsley. 

ORDER   OF   WORK 

1.  Wipe  the  meat  and  put  it  in  the  roasting-pan.  One 
hour  and  a  half  before  the  dinner-hour,  put  it  in  the  oven. 
Prepare  mint  and  sugar  for  mint  sauce,  if  not  already  done. 

2.  Shell  peas,  and  wash  lettuce. 

3.  Lay  table  ;  finish  mint  sauce ;  make  ready  the  bread, 
mint  sauce,  and  fruit. 

4.  Start  soup  (about  forty-five  minutes  before  dinner 
time) . 

5.  Put  peas  to  cook  (allowing  time  according  to  their 
age). 

Directions   for   roasting   lamb.  —  Follow    directions   for 

roasting  beef,  basting  about  once  in  fifteen  minutes.     Put 

a  little  water  in  the  pan  if  there  is  not  melted  fat  enough 

to  baste  with. 

Mint  Sauce 

Finely  cut  mint  leaves,  I  c.  Granulated  sugar,  I  c. 

Vinegar,  ^  c. 

Mix  the  sugar  and  mint  and  let  them  stand  for  several 
hours  if  possible.  Add  the  vinegar  cold  about  an  hour 
before  serving. 

6.  Prepare  cheesed  crackers. 

7.  Dry  lettuce  and  arrange  in  salad  bowl.  Leave  in  a 
cool  place.     Make  French  dressing. 

8.  Take  up  meat  when  done,  and  keep  hot. 


THE  SERVING  OF  FOOD  359 

9.   In  the  order  given,  finish  making  soup,  dish  and  dress 
potatoes,  dish  peas,  fill  glasses. 
10.   Announce  dinner. 

A  Luncheon 

Scalloped  meat  (or  fish).  Baking-powder  biscuit. 

Celery. 
Baked  apples  and  cream.  Gingerbread. 

Cocoa. 

Find  recipes  and  directions  for  making  the  dishes  for  this 
luncheon.  Think  out  and  write  down  directions  and  an 
"  order  of  work  '^  for  preparing  this  luncheon.  After  trying 
these  plans,  see  if  you  can  improve  on  them.  With  the  aid 
of  Chapter  V  write  out  other  menus  and  plan  how  to  pre- 
pare them. 

Brief  Reference  List 

For  further  development  of  topics  treated  in  this  section 
see :  — 

Bevier  and  Van  Meter:  Selection  and  preparation  of  food. 

Child  :  The  efficient  kitchen. 

Lincoln  and  Barrows  :  Home  science  cook-hook. 


CHAPTER  XIV 
LAUNDERING 

Note  to  Teacher.  —  This  chapter  gives  an  outline  of  such  laundry- 
work  as  may  be  taught  in  two  or  three  lessons,  incident  to  the  work  in 
cookery.  It  may  provide  a  review  of  what  the  pupils  have  learned 
about  water  (Chap.  I,  Sec.  2),  cleaning,  soaps,  alkalies,  disinfection 
(Chap.  I,  Sec.  3),  and  starch  (Chap.  II,  Sec.  2).  Dish-pans  with  small 
washboards  may  be  used  for  tubs,  and  a  demonstration  lesson  given  in 
ironing,  if  the  equipment  is  not  sufficient  for  practice  work. 

We  depend  chiefly  upon  soap  and  water  to  make  soiled 
clothing  clean.  Sunlight  and  air  are  desirable  aids.  Chemi- 
cals may  be  needed  :  alkalies,  borax,  ammonia,  and  washing 
soda,  to  remove  dirt,  or  soften  hard  water;  either  acid  or 
other  chemicals  for  removing  stains.  Heat,  friction,  and 
pressure  may  also  be  employed. 

A  good  white  soap  is  best  for  laundry  use.  Yellow  soap 
contains  much  resin,  which  makes  the  clothes  yellow  and 
is  hard  to  rinse  out.  A  little  resin  helps  poor  soap  to  make 
suds,  but  in  a  large  quantity  it  is  an  adulterant.  Borax 
soap  is  good  to  use  with  hard  water.  Naphtha  soap  is  good 
to  use  with  cold  or  lukewarm  water.  Hot  water  drives  off 
the  naphtha. 

We  blue  white  clothes  to  overcome  the  yellowing  effect 
of  wearing  and  washing.  Bluing  is  not  meant  to  hide  care- 
lessness in  washing  and  rinsing.  We  starch  certain  pieces 
to  fill  spaces  between  the  threads,  to  stiffen  them,  and  to 

360 


LAUNDERING  361 

enable  them  to  be  finished  smoothly  with  the  iron.  We  iron 
to  remove  wrinkles,  and  to  give  to  the  fabric  the  smooth 
finish  which  makes  it  look  better  and  keep  clean  longer. 

Not  all  the  ironing  commonly  done  is  necessary.  Stock- 
ings, soft  underwear,  and  Turkish  towels  do  not  need  ironing. 
In  hot  weather,  or  when  the  ironing  must  be  done  by  a 
woman  burdened  with  other  work,  towels  and  even  bed- 
linen  may  be  used  unironed. 

ORDER  OF   WORK 

Sorting  and  soaking.  —  Wash  colored  clothes  separately 
from  white  ones,  table-linen  and  dish-towels  separately  from 
other  pieces.  Wash  woollens  by  themselves  in  lukewarm 
suds  and  rinse  in  lukewarm  water. 

Soaking  saves  rubbing.  If  clothes  are  to  be  soaked,  put 
them  into  enough  soapy  warm  water  to  cover  them. 

Washing.  —  The  clothes  may  be  rubbed  out  once  in  the 
water  they  have  been  soaked  in,  but  they  must  be  washed 
once  besides  in  clean  suds. 

Spread  one  piece  at  a  time  on  the  washboard,  soap  it, 
and  rub  it  on  the  board,  dipping  it  now  and  then.  Look 
for  the  most  soiled  places,  and  rub  them  hardest.  Rub 
delicate  fabrics  and  trimmings  between  the  hands,  not  on 
the  board. 

Washing-machines.  —  Rubbing  clothes  on  a  board  tires 
the  worker  and  wears  the  clothes.  A  washing-machine 
saves  time,  strength,  and  fabrics.  There  are  several  kinds. 
They  may  be  run  by  hand,  water-power,  or  electricity.  A 
good  hand-washer  consists  of  a  metal  cone  with  a  straight 


362     THEORY  AND  PRACTICE  OF  COOKERY 

handle.  When  pressed  down,  it  forces  suds  through  the 
clothes,  and  when  raised,  sucks  it  back.  With  its  aid,  large, 
heavy  pieces  may  be  washed  quickly. 

Wringing.  —  Wring  out  and  drop  into  rinsing  water  or 
into  the  boiler.  Watch  some  one  who  knows  the  right  twist, 
in  order  to  learn  how  to  wring  by  hand.  Hand-wringing 
tends  to  wrench  the  fabric.  For  anything  more  than  a 
few  small  pieces,  a  wringer  is  a  necessity. 

Boiling.  —  Boiling  with  soap  cleanses  and  sterilizes  clothes. 
It  is  especially  important  for  underwear  and  much  soiled 
pieces  of  any  kind.  It  is  not  always  necessary  for  other 
pieces  if  they  can  be  dried  in  the  sun.  Colored  pieces  must 
not  be  boiled.  Cut  the  soap  into  small  pieces  and  be  sure  it 
is  dissolved  before  putting  in  the  clothes.  It  is  best  to  use 
a  soap  solution,  which  can  be  kept  on  hand,  and  added  to 
the  water  in  the  boiler.  To  make  this,  dissolve  one  pound 
of  cut-up  soap  or  "  soap-chips  "  in  one  gallon  of  water.  It 
will  jelly  when  cold. 

Clothes  to  be  boiled  are  put  into  the  boiler  after  being 
wrung  from  the  wash-water.  Boil  three  to  ten  minutes  ac- 
cording to  how  soiled  the  clothes  are.  Stir  with  a  clothes 
stick  to  let  steam  escape.  Remove  with  the  stick,  and  drop 
into  rinsing-water. 

Rinsing.  —  Clothes  should  be  rinsed  at  least  twice.  If 
you  lack  a  plentiful  supply  of  water,  or  if  water  must  be 
carried,  save  on  the  wash-water  rather  than  on  the  rinsing- 
water. 

Bluing.  —  Bluing  goes  in  the  last  rinse- water.  The  safest 
bluing  is  the  kind  that  comes  in  balls  or  squares.     Tie  it  in  a 


LAUNDERING  363 

woollen  or  cotton  flannel  cloth,  and  squeeze  it  into  a  bowl 
of  hot  water.  Add  this  to  the  rinse-water  until  it  shows  a 
light  sky-blue  when  taken  up  in  the  hand.  As  this  kind  of 
bluing  settles,  the  water  must  be  stirred  with  the  hand  fre- 
quently, and  clothes  must  not  lie  in  it,  but  be  dipped  and 
wrung  out  at  once.^ 

Starching.  —  Laundry  starch  is  commonly  corn-starch. 
Wheat-starch  is  better.  Rice-starch  is  used  for  lace  and 
very  fine  fabrics.  To  make  starch  for  medium  fabrics,  allow 
two  tablespoonfuls  of  starch  to  one  quart  of  boiling  water. 
(One  teaspoonful  of  borax  improves  the  starch.)  Mix  the 
starch  with  enough  cold  water  to  form  a  cream.  Add  the 
boiling  water  and  boil  till  clear.  Strain  and  cool  till  the 
hand  can  be  borne  in  it.  If  clothing  is  liked  rather  stiff, 
use  two  and  a  half  to  three  tablespoonfuls  of  starch ;  for  shirt 
bosoms,  five.  For  delicate  waists  and  underwear,  use  only 
one.  Dipping  the  damp  clothes  in  the  starch  thins  it,  so 
that  fairly  thick  starch  may  do  for  things  to  be  lightly 
starched,  if  they  are  dipped  last.  Thick  close  fabrics  should 
be  dipped  in  thin  starch. 

Dry  clothes  in  the  air  if  possible.  Sunlight  whitens  and 
helps  to  sterilize  them. 

Sprinkle  clothes  several  hours  before  they  are  to  be  ironed, 
roll  up  tight.     A  clean  whisk-broom  makes  a  good  sprinkler. 

1  Some  people  prefer  liquid  bluing.  But  all  liquid  bluing  contains  iron, 
which  with  soap  forms  rust.  This  makes  little  rust-spots  on  clothing, 
which  many  people  think  come  from  the  board  or  the  wringer.  If  you 
use  liquid  blue,  rinse  the  clothes  very  thoroughly  to  get  all  the  soap  out 
before  you  blue  them.  Even  then  a  rust-spot  may  appear  the  next  time 
they  are  put  into  soapy  water. 


364     THEORY  AND  PRACTICE  OF  COOKERY 

Ironing.  —  Irons  must  be  kept  clean  and  smooth.  If 
rough,  rub  them  on  salt  sprinkled  on  a  paper.  Experience 
is  needed  to  enable  one  to  know  how  hot  an  iron  should  be 
for  a  given  fabric.  Spread  out  the  piece.  Iron  with  the 
threads ;  with  the  long  thread  (warp)  as  much  as  possible, 
keeping  the  fabric  stretched  and  flat  with  the  left  hand. 
One  must  learn  how  to  iron  by  watching  a  good  ironer.  If 
you  have  much  ironing  to  do,  use  a  high  chair  or  stool  while 
ironing  simple  pieces,  and  save  yourself  fatigue. 

An  electric  iron  is  well  worth  what  it  costs.  Remember 
that  it  grows  hotter,  not  cooler,  and  may  scorch. 

Removing  stains. — To  remove  fresh  fruit  or  coffee 
stains,  stretch  the  fabric  over  a  bowl,  and  pour  boiHng 
water  through  the  stain.  Cocoa  and  chocolate  stains 
should  be  washed  in  cold  water  with  soap  or  borax  be- 
fore being  put  into  hot  water.  Peach  stains  require 
Javelle  water. 

SPECIAL    INSTRUCTIONS    FOR    LAUNDERING  TOWELS,    TABLE- 
LINEN,    SASH-CURTAINS,    CAP,    AND    APRON 

Washing.  —  Put  any  very  soiled  pieces  to  soak.  Wash, 
rinse,  and  blue,  according  to  directions  given  above.  All 
may  be  washed  in  one  water,  in  the  following  order :  table- 
linen,  dish-towels,  side-towel  or  hand-towel,  cap,  apron,  and 
curtains.     Boil  the  towels. 

Starch  cap  and  apron  first,  then  curtains.  The  appear- 
ance of  a  thin  table-cloth  is  improved  by  dipping  it  in  very 
thin  starch. 


LAUNDERING  365 

Several  small  flat  pieces  may  be  rolled  together  after 
sprinkling.  If  the  curtains  are  thin,  make  them  very  damp, 
or  some  of  the  fabric  may  dry  before  the  iron  reaches  it.  If 
this  happens,  dampen  with  a  damp  cloth. 

Ironing  plain  pieces.  —  Straighten  each  piece  and  pull 
corners  square.  It  is  almost  impossible  to  iron  curtains 
on  a  board  without  stretching  them  out  of  shape.  Large 
curtains  must  be  dried  on  a  frame.  Have  the  iron  very  hot 
for  linen.  Iron  heavy  linen  on  both  sides.  Fold  napkins 
into  accurate  squares.  Fold  a  table-cloth  right  side  out, 
first  making  a  lengthwise  fold  down  the  middle. 

Ironing  starched  pieces.  —  In  ironing  the  apron,  do  the 
bib  first,  next  the  band  and  strings,  the  body  of  the  apron 
last.  Iron  the  gathers  till  they  are  dry,  running  the  point  of 
the  iron  up  into  them.  If  the  cap  is  not  made  so  that  the 
gathers  can  be  let  out  for  laundering,  a  small  iron  will  be 
useful  for  the  crown.  If  there  is  a  band,  lay  that  along  the 
edge  of  the  table  and  iron  it  first.  Do  the  frill  next,  and 
the  crown  last,  ironing  it  on  the  inside. 

Brief  Reference  List 

For  further  development  of  topics  treated  in  this  section 
see :  — 

Balderston:  Laundering. 

Vail  :  Approved  methods  for  home  laundering. 

Morris  :  Household  science  and  art.    Chapter  on  Laundering. 

KiNNE  AND  CooLEY :  Foods  and  household  management.  Ch.  23, 
Laundering  and  dry  cleansing. 

Snell  :  Elementary  household  chemistry.  Ch.  22,  Hard  water ;  23,  Am- 
monia; 26-29,  Soaps;  30,  Cleaning  of  fabrics;  42,  Bleaching  and 
bluing. 


CHAPTER  XV 
DIGESTION 

A    GENERAL   VIEW    OF   DIGESTION 

What  digestion  is.  —  All  foodstuffs  except  water,  mineral 
salts,  and  two  of  the  sugars  have  to  undergo  a  process  of 
change  called  digestion  before  they  can  be  built  into  the 
body.  Digestion  means  taking  apart.  Foodstuffs,  like 
all  other  substances,  are  considered  by  chemists  to  be 
composed  of  minute  particles,  which  are  called  molecules 
(little  masses).  Whenever  the  molecules  of  any  substance 
are  divided,  the  substance  is  changed  into  something  else. 
This  is  called  a  chemical  change.  (See  physical  and  chemi- 
cal changes,  p.  55.)  Protein  molecules  are  larger  than  the 
molecules  of  most  other  substances,  but  even  they  are  far  too 
small  to  be  seen,  even  with  a  microscope.  Digestion  splits  up 
the  molecules  of  proteins,  fats,  starches,  and  some  sugars, 
forming  smaller  molecules  of  new  substances.  Usually  re- 
peated splittings  occur.  Fat  molecules  have  to  be  split  only 
once,  but  protein  and  starch  molecules  are  split  many  times. 
At  last  molecules  are  formed  which  are  small  enough  to 
enter  the  cells  of  the  body.  As  a  rule,  at  each  splitting, 
the  new  substances  formed  unite  chemically  with  a  certain 
amount  of  water.  This  chemical  union  with  water  is  called 
hydrolysis.     Repeating    to    yourself,    "  Split    and    take    up 

366 


DIGESTION  367 

water;  split  again  and  take  up  water,"  will  help  you  to 
remember  the  most  prominent  feature  of  digestion. 

Digestibility.  —  People  often  say  this  or  that  food  is 
'^  indigestible,"  when  they  mean  that  some  people  feel  dis- 
comfort after  eating  it.  This  is  a  wrong  use  of  the  term. 
An  indigestible  food  would  not  be  a  food  at  all.  Some  foods 
are  more  quickly  digested  than  others,  but  the  quickly 
digested  food  may  not  be  so  completely  digested  as  one  which 
takes  a  longer  time.  Cheese  is  more  completely  digestible 
than  rice.  It  is  best  to  avoid  the  word  indigestible  except 
when  referring  to  cellulose,  grape-seeds,  or  things  of  that 
sort,  and  to  use  the  word  digestible  only  in  the  sense  of  com- 
pleteness of  digestion.  Very  large  percentages  of  ordinary 
foods  are  digestible. 

The  process  of  digestion  and  the  digestibility  of  foods  are 
affected  by  many  things.  Among  these  are  the  quantity 
of  food  eaten,  its  taste,  the  way  it  is  cooked,  and  the  state 
of  mind  and  body  of  the  person  who  eats  it.  Unhappy  feel- 
ings interfere  with  digestion.  Good  cheer  at  the  table  pro- 
motes good  health. 

The  alimentary  canal.  —  When  food  is  swallowed,  it  goes 
down  a  soft  muscular  tube,  the  oesophagus,  to  the  stomach. 
The  stomach  is  a  pouch  with  muscular  walls  and  a  soft, 
smooth  lining.  After  being  partly  digested  in  the  stomach, 
the  food  passes  through  a  narrow  opening  into  another 
muscular  tube,  the  small  intestine.  Here  it  is  further  di- 
gested and  most  of  the  products  of  digestion  are  absorbed. 
The  material  left- passes  into  the  large  intestine,  from  which 
there  is  an  exit  for  waste.     Mouth,  oesophagus,  stomach, 


368     THEORY  AND  PRACTICE  OF  COOKERY 

small  intestine,  and  large  intestine  are  spoken  of  together 
as  the  alimentary  canal. 

Mechanical  and  chemical  changes  in  digestion.  —  The 

only  stage  of  digestion  of  which  a  healthy  person  is  conscious 
is  that  which  takes  place  in  the  mouth.  Here  teeth,  tongue, 
and  face-muscles  work  together  to  divide  the  food  and  mix 
it  with  saliva.  The  saliva  softens  and  partially  dissolves 
it.  The  muscles  of  the  stomach  and  intestines  continue 
working  the  food  about  and  squeezing  it  along.  At  the 
same  time  the  digestive  juices  flow  into  the  stomach  and 
intestines  and  mingle  with  the  food,  so  that  it  becomes 
constantly  more  finely  divided,  liquefied,  and  dissolved. 
These  mechanical  changes  aid  digestion,  but  it  is  the  chemical 
changes  which  really  digest  the  food. 

Digestive  enzyms.  —  These  chemical  changes  are  brought 
about  by  the  action  of  enzyms.  We  are  already  familiar 
with  the  work  of  a  few  enzyms.  (See  Enzyms,  p.  131.)  It 
is  hard  to  say  exactly  what  enzyms  are,  because  not  enough 
of  one  can  be  obtained  for  a  satisfactory  examination.  They 
seem  to  be  substances  secreted  by  living  cells,  which  can 
work  chemical  changes  in  other  substances  without  them- 
selves undergoing  change.  Each  digestive  enzym  works 
on  one  class  of  foodstuffs  only,  in  some  cases,  on  a  single 
foodstuff.  The  enzym,  amylase,  acts  on  all  starches,  but 
there  is  a  different  enzym  for  each  sugar. 

Digestive  juices.  —  Each  digestive  enzym  is  a  constituent 
of  some  digestive  juice.  Some  of  these  juices  come  from  the 
walls  of  the  alimentary  canal,  some  from  organs  lying  near 
the  canal.     Saliva  is  secreted  chiefly  by  three  pairs  of  glands 


DIGESTION  369 

near  the  mouth.  It  furnishes  amylase,  also  alkahne  salts 
which  favor  the  action  of  amylase.  Gastric  juice  is  secreted 
by  glands  in  the  stomach  wall.  It  furnishes  three  enzyms, 
pepsin,  rennin,  and  lipase.  Gastric  juice  also  contains 
hydrochloric  acid,  without  which  pepsin  will  not  act.  Pan- 
creatic juice  is  so  called  because  it  is  secreted  by  the  pancreas, 
a  large  gland  back  of  the  stomach.  It  flows  into  the  small 
intestine  through  a  duct.  Pancreatic  juice  contains  amylase 
and  lipase,  and  a  third  substance,  which  soon  becomes  the 
enzym  trypsin.  Glands  in  the  intestinal  wall  secrete  a 
mixture  of  fluids  known  as  the  intestinal  juice.  These  con- 
tribute at  least  five  enzyms.  Another  fluid,  bile,  enters  the 
small  intestine  through  a  duct  from  the  liver.  Bile  con- 
tains no  enzyms.  It  contains  other  substances,  however, 
which  aid  the  digestion  and  the  absorption  of  food,  partic- 
ularly of  fats. 

WHERE    EACH    FOODSTUFF    IS    DIGESTED 

Let  us  follow  a  meal  through  the  alimentary  canal  and 
see  what  happens  to  each  foodstuff. 

Digestion  in  the  mouth.  —  In  the  mouth  amylase  be- 
gins to  digest  starches,  by  splitting  them  into  dextrins.  If 
the  food  stays  in  the  mouth  long  enough,  a  little  of  the 
dextrin  may  be  split  into  sugar  (maltose)  and  dissolved. 
Saliva  also  dissolves  any  salt  and  sugar  not  in  solution  when 
eaten. 

Digestion  in  the  stomach.  —  When  starch  enters  the 
stomach,  its  digestion  is  under  way.  Proteins  and  fats  enter 
the  stomach  unchanged.  Pepsin  is  a  protein-spHtting 
2b 


370     THEORY  AND  PRACTICE  OF  COOKERY 

enzym.  It  changes  (hydrolyzes)  proteins  into  compounds 
simpler  than  proteins.  Lipase  splits  fats,  but  the  lipase  in 
the  stomach  seems  to  act  only  on  emulsified  fats  and  not 
very  strongly  on  these.  Rennin  curdles  milk.  Its  action 
is  an  exception  to  the  general  rule  that  digestion  liquefies. 
Pepsin,  however,  soon  liquefies  the  curd  formed  by  rennin. 
Amylase  continues  to  digest  starch  in  the  stomach  until 
that  part  of  the  stomach  contents  upon  which  it  is  working 
becomes  acid  from  mingling  with  hydrochloric  acid. 

Gradually  the  stomach  contents  becomes  a  grayish  pulp. 
This  pulp,  called  chyme,  escapes  little  by  little  into  the  small 
intestine.  After  a  meal  which  has  included  all  the  food- 
stuffs, chyme  contains  dextrins  and  sugars;  perhaps  some 
undigested  starch ;  proteins  and  the  first  products  of  pro- 
tein-digestion ;  fat,  and  perhaps  a  little  fatty  acid  and  glyc- 
erin formed  by  the  splitting  of  fat.  Gastric  digestion  is  pre- 
paratory to  intestinal  digestion. 

Intestinal  digestion  is  very  complex.  Pancreatic  juice,  in- 
testinal juice,  and  bile  mingle  and  act  together  on  the  chyme. 
The  half-digested  proteins  and  fats  are  further  digested. 
Starch  digestion  continues.  All  sugars  that  require  diges- 
tion are  digested  here.  Grape-sugar  and  fruit-sugar  undergo 
no  change. 

At  last  the  food  is  ready  for  the  body  to  use.  — All  the 
sugars  present  appear  as  two  or  three  of  the  simplest,  most 
soluble  kinds.  The  proteins,  having  passed  through  many 
changes,  are  reduced  largely  to  amino-acids.  The  fats 
have  been  split  into  glycerin  and  fatty  acids.  A  part,  at 
least,  of  these  fatty  acids  is  converted  into  soap  before  being 


DIGESTION  371 

absorbed.     All  these  products  of  digestion  are  mixed  together 
into  a  creamy  fluid  termed  chyle. 

Absorption  of  food.  —  A  little  food  may  be  absorbed 
from  the  stomach,  and  a  very  little  from  the  large  intestine, 
but  the  bulk  of  it  is  absorbed  from  the  small  intestine. 
While  digestion  is  going  on,  the  products  formed  are  being 
sucked  up  through  tiny  thread-hke  cells  called  vilH,  which 
project  into  the  stream  of  chyle.  The  details  of  absorption 
and  assimilation  are  wonderfully  interesting,  but  as  they 
are  not  directly  affected,  as  digestion  is,  by  the  way  food  is 
prepared,  we  do  not  need  to  consider  them  in  connection 
with  cooking. 

Bbiep  Reference  List 

For  further  development  of  topics  treated  in  this  section 
see :  — 

Ritchie  :  Primer  of  physiology.  Ch.  8,  Digestive  organs ;  9,  Digestion, 
absorption,  and  oxidation ;   10,  Dietetics. 

Sherman  :  Chemistry  of  food  and  nutrition.    Ch.  2,  3,  and  4. 

Stiles:  Nutritional  physiology.  Ch.  6-11,  Digestion;  22  and  23,  Hy- 
giene of  nutrition ;  25,  Internal  secretion. 

Buchanan:  Household  bacteriology.  Ch.  22,  Enzyms  of  microorgan- 
isms. 

Fowler  :  Bacteriological  and  enzym  chemistry.    Ch.  5,  6,  and  7. 


372 


THEORY  AND  PRACTICE  OF  COOKERY 


TABLE   OF    lOO-CALORIE    PORTIONS 

That  quantity  of  a  given  food  which  will  supply  just  100 
calories  is  called  the  ^^  100-calorie  portion '^  or  ^'standard 
portion/'  The  following  table  gives  standard  portions  of 
a  number  of  common  foods.  It  also  shows  how  many  calo- 
ries out  of  the  100  are  supphed  by  the  protein,  how  many  by 
the  fat,  and  how  many  by  the  carbohydrate,  in  each  food. 


Food 


Beef  rib,  uncooked  .  . 
Beef  rib,  roasted  .  .  . 
Leg  of  mutton,  uncooked 
Leg  of  mutton,  boiled  . 
Lima  beans,  canned  . 
String  beans,  cooked  .  . 
Cabbage,  uncooked  .  . 
Potatoes,  baked  .  .  . 
Potatoes,  boiled     .     .     . 

Apples 

Bananas  

Milk 

Buttermilk 

Butter 

Cheese 

Eggs 

Honey 

Granulated  sugar  .     .     . 

Flour 

Bread 

Cornmeal 

Tapioca,  cooked     .     .     . 

Macaroni 

Macaroni,  cooked  .     .     . 

Oatmeal 

Oatmeal,  cooked  .  .  . 
Peanuts,  shelled  .  .  . 
Walnuts,  shelled     .     .     . 


Weight  in 
Ounces  of 

Number  oh 

Calories  Supplied  by 

100- 
Calorie 
Portion 

Protein 

Fat 

Carbo- 
hydrate 

1.8 

42 

58 

0 

0.9 

18 

82 

0 

1.8 

41 

59 

0 

1.2 

35 

65 

0 

4.5 

21 

4 

75 

16.7 

15 

48 

37 

11. 

20 

9 

71 

3. 

11 

1 

88 

102. 

11 

1 

88 

7.5 

2 

6 

92 

3.5 

5 

6 

89 

4.9 

19 

52 

29 

9.9 

34 

12 

54 

0.5 

.5 

99 

0 

.8 

25 

73 

2 

2.4 

36 

64 

0 

1. 

1 

0 

99 

.9 

0 

0 

100 

.9 

10.8 

1 

74.8 

1.3 

14 

4 

82 

1. 

10 

5 

85 

3.9 

1 

1 

98 

1. 

15 

2 

93 

3.9 

14 

15 

71 

.9 

16 

16 

68 

5.6 

18 

7 

75 

.6 

19 

63 

18 

.5 

10 

83 

7 

A  LIST  OF  ALL  PUBLICATIONS   REFERRED  TO  IN 
THIS  BOOK,  WITH  SOME  ADDITIONS 

BIBLIOGRAPHIES 

Langworthy,  C.  F.  State  and  municipal  documents  as  sources  of 
information  for  institution  managers  and  other  students  of  home 
economics.  Reprint  from  Journal  of  home  economics,  Feb.  1912. 
Langworthy,  C.  F.  U.  S.  government  publications  as  sources  of  informa- 
tion for  students  of  home  economics.  Reprint  from  Journal  of  home 
economics,  Feb.  1912. 
U.  S.  Department  of  agriculture. 

Farmer's  bulletin  list.  (Issued  several  times  a  year.) 
Monthly  Ust  of  [department]  publications. 
Pubhcations  of  the  office  of  agricultural  instruction. 
List  of  U.  S.  Department  of  agriculture  publications  of  interest  to 
teachers  of  home  economics. 
Circulars  on  girls'  canning  and  home  demonstration  work. 

Note.  —  Every  teacher  should  keep  at  hand  the  above  lists  of  publica- 
tions of  the  Department  of  agriculture,  and  should  have  the  Monthly  Ust 
of  pubhcations  mailed  to  her  regularly.  For  any  publication  of  the 
Department  of  agriculture,  apply  to  the  Secretary  of  Agriculture, 
Washington,  D.C. 

U.  S.  Department  of  the  interior.    Bureau  of  education. 
List  of  [bureau]  pubhcations. 

List  of  references  on  home  economics.  June,  1913.  (Includes  references 
on  teaching  of  home  economics  in  elementary  schools,  in  rural  schools, 
in  secondary  schools,  in  colleges  and  universities,  also  general  refer- 
ences. Valuable.) 
Washington,  State  College  of.  Home  economics  —  a  bibliography  for 
high  schools.     1913. 

373 


374  A  LIST  OF  PUBLICATIONS 

PERIODICALS 

American  food  journal.  Chi.  Monthly  $1.00.  (Contains  synopsis  of  food 
laws,  passed  or  pending.     Some  laws  given  in  full.) 

Boston  cooking-school  magazine.  372  Boylston  St.,  Boston.  Monthly. 
$1.00  —  . 

Bulletin  of  the  American  School  of  Home  Economics.  Chi.  Quarterly. 
$.10  each. 

Experiment  station  record.  U.  S.  Department  of  agriculture.  2  vols,  a 
year.  10  nos.  each.  (A  technical  review  of  the  world's  scientific  litera- 
ture pertaining  to  agriculture.  Free  only  to  persons  connected  with 
agricultural  colleges,  experiment  stations,  and  similar  institutions,  and 
to  libraries  and  exchanges.  Superintendent  of  Documents  will  receive 
subscriptions  at  $1 .00  a  volume.  The  Record  may  be  found  in  hbraries. 
Most  of  the  matter  of  interest  to  teachers  of  home  economics  will  be 
found  under  the  heads :   Food.    Human  nutrition.) 

Good  housekeeping.     International  Magazine  Co.  N.  Y.    Monthly.   $1.00. 

Housewives  league  magazine.  (Housewives  League.  27  E.  22d  St.,  New 
York.)     Monthly.     $1.00  a  year. 

Journal  of  home  economics.  American  home  economics  assoc,  Roland 
Park,  Balto.  Bi-monthly.  $2.00.  (Contains  bibliography  of  current 
literature  on  home  economics.) 

Medical  record.    51  Fifth  Ave.,  N.  Y.    Weekly.     $5.00. 

National  geographic  magazine.     Wash.  D.  C.     Monthly.     $2.50. 

Scientific  American.    361  Broadway,  N.  Y.     Weekly.     $3.00. 

Table-talk.     Cooperstown,  N.  Y.     Monthly.     $1.00. 

Teachers  college  record.    Teachers  College.     Columbia  University. 

World's  work.     Doubleday  Page.     N.  Y.     Monthly.     $3.00. 

Year  book  of  the  U.  S.  Department  of  agriculture.  Annual.  (Reprints 
of  single  articles  are  in  many  cases  obtainable.) 

New  York.  (Journal  devoted  to  school  problems.)  5  nos.  a  year. 
$1.00. 

PAMPHLETS 

(For  federal  government  publications  see  bibliographies.) 
American  home  economics  association.    Balto.    Syllabus  of  home  eco- 
nomics. 


BIBLIOGRAPHIES  375 

Cornell  University,  Ithaca,  N.  Y.  Cornell  reading  course  for  the  farm 
home. 

Florida  State  College  for  Women.  Department  of  home  economics. 
Extension  bulletins.     Sent  free  upon  application. 

Health  Education  League.  113  Devonshire  St.,  Boston.  Booklets. 
(Send  for  list  and  prices.  Under  certain  conditions  may  be  obtained 
free.) 

Housekeeping  experiment  station.  28  Hoyt  St.,  Stamford,  Conn. 
4-p.  bulletins :  10  cents.     20-p.  bulletins :  25  cents.    Send  for  list. 

New  York  Milk  Committee.  105  E.  22d  St.,  N.  Y.  City.  Milk  —  its 
value  to  the  home  —  its  care  in  the  home.  lUus.  leaflet.  Free  on 
request. 

Ohio  State  University,  Columbus,  0.  Homemakers'  reading  course. 
Series  of  bulletins. 

Sunset  Route  (Southern  Pacific  R.R.).  Texas  and  Louisiana  rice.  How 
it  is  grown  and  cooked.    Free. 

Teachers  College,  Columbia  University,  New  York.  Technical  edu- 
cation bulletins.  (Especially  No.  12.  Address  list  for  illustrative 
materials  and  laboratory  supplies  for  instruction  in  household  arts, 
1910.  10  cents ;  No.  14.  A  year's  work  in  the  industrial  arts  in  the 
fifth  grade.  1912.  15  cents ;  and  Series  A,  No.  3.  The  feeding  of 
young  children,  by  Mary  Schwartz  Rose.) 

University  of  Illinois,  Urbana,  111.  Bulletins.  (Especially  those  of 
department  of  household  science.) 

Washburn-Crosby  Co.    Wheat  and  flour  primer.     (Free.) 

HOME  ECONOMICS  IN  RELATION  TO  LIFE 

Beard,  Charles  A.  and  Mary  Ritter.  American  citizenship.  Mac- 
millan.  1914.  $1.00.  (Text-book  for  high  schools.  Chapters  2 
and  3  in  particular  show  relation  of  government  to  food,  clothing, 
shelter,  the  home,  and  the  family.) 

Earle,  Alice  Morse.  Home  life  in  colonial  days.  Macmillan.  1906. 
$2.50.     (Standard  lib.  ed.  $.50.) 

Hunt,  Caroline  L.  Life  of  Ellen  H.  Richards.  Whitcomb  and 
Barrows.  1912.  $1.50.  (Interesting  and  inspiring  to  teachers  and 
older  students  of  home  economics.) 

Mason,  0.  T.    Woman's  share  in  primitive  culture.    Appleton.    $1.75. 


376  A  LIST  OF  PUBLICATIONS 


SCIENCE  1 


BiGELOW,  Maurice  A.  and  Anna  N.    Applied  biology.    Macmillaa 

1911.  $1.40. 

Brownlee,  Hancock,  Fuller,  Schon,  and  Whitsit.  First  principles 
of  chemistry.  Allyn  and  Bacon.  1907.  $1.25.  (A  high  school 
chemistry.) 

Buchanan,  Estelle  D.  and  Robt.  Earle.  Household  Bacteriology. 
Macmillan.  1913.  $2.25.  (Best  textbook  on  bacteriology  for  the 
teacher  of  home  economics.) 

Cohn,  Dr.  Lassar-.  Chemistry  in  daily  life.  Popular  lectures.  5th 
ed.,  rev.  and  aug.     Lippincott.     1913.     $1.75. 

Conn,  H.  W.  Bacteria,  yeasts,  and  molds  in  the  home.  Ginn.  1912. 
Same  text  as  ed.  of  1903.  $1.00.  (Good  pictures  of  microorganisms, 
showing  their  effects  on  food.) 

DoANE,  Rennie  W.  Insects  and  disease.  Holt.  1910.  $1.50. 
Treats  also  of  microorganisms  in  relation  to  disease.  (Well  illus. 
Full  bibliography  with  notes.) 

DoDD,  Margaret  E.  Chemistry  of  the  household.  American  School 
of  Home  Economics.     1907.     $1.50.     Textbook    ed.     1910.     $1.25. 

Elliott,  S.  Maria.  Household  bacteriology.  By  the  same.  House- 
hold hygiene.  American  School  of  Home  Economics.  Chi.  1907. 
$1.50  each.     Textbook  ed.     1910.     $1.25. 

Fowler,  Gilbert  John.  An  introduction  to  bacteriological  and  enzyme 
chemistry.  Longmans.  1911.  $2.10.  (Technical.  Assumes  thor- 
ough knowledge  of  chemistry.) 

Grant,  James.    Chemistry  of  bread-making.    Longmans.    1912.    $1.50. 

Lynde,  Carleton  J.  Physics  of  the  household.  Macmillan.  1914. 
$1.25. 

McPherson,  Wm.  and  Henderson,  Wm.  E.  First  course  in  chemis- 
try.    Ginn.     1915.     $1.25. 

Morgan,  W.  C.  and  Lyman,  J.  A.  Chemistry:  an  elementary  text- 
book.    Macmillan.     1911.     $1.25. 

NoRRis,   Jas.   F.      Principles    of   organic    chemistry.      McGraw   HiU. 

1912.  $2.50. 

1  It  is  best  to  use  the  latest  edition  of  any  scientific  work. 


BIBLIOGRAPHIES  377 

Prudden,  T.  M.  Story  of  the  bacteria.  2d  ed.,  rev.  and  enl.  Put- 
nam.    1910.     $.75. 

Richards,  Ellen  H.  Sanitation  in  daily  life.  Whitcomb  and  Bar- 
rows. 1907.  $  .60.  (Technical.  Mrs.  Richards'  books  are  suitable 
for  teachers  only.) 

Richards,  Ellen  H.  and  Elliott,  S.  Maria.  Chemistry  of  cooking 
and  cleaning.     3d.  ed.     Whitcomb  and  Barrows.     1907.    $1.00. 

Ritchie,  John  W.  Human  physiology.  World  Book  Co.  Yonkers-on- 
Hudson.     1909.     $.80.     (Simple  clear  style.) 

Sherman,  Henry  C.  Chemistry  of  food  and  nutrition.  MacmUlan. 
1911.  $1.50.  (A  standard  authority.  Devotes  especial  attention 
to  the  mineral  compounds  in  food.) 

Snell,  John  F.  Elementary  household  chemistry.  Macmillan.  1914. 
$1.25. 

Stiles,  Percy  G.  Nutritional  physiology.  Saunders.  1912.  $1.25. 
(Readable  and  reliable.) 

Thorpe,  Sir  Edward.  Dictionary  of  applied  chemistry.  5  vol.  rev.  ed. 
1913.     Longmans.     Each  v.  $13.50. 

VuLTE,  Hermann  T.  and  Goodell,  Geo.  A.  Laboratory  notes  in 
household  chemistry  for  the  use  of  students  in  domestic  science. 
Chemical  Pub.  Co.  Easton,  Pa.  1911.  $1.25.  For  advanced  or  nor- 
mal students. 

FOOD  PRODUCTS 

Bailey,   E.    H.    S.      Source,    chemistry,   and   use   of   food   products. 

Blakiston.     1914.    $1.60. 
Carpenter,  Frank  G.     "How  the  world  is  fed."    Am.  Book  Co.     1907. 

$  .60.     (One  of  a  series  of  industrial  readers.     Good  illus.) 
DoNDLiNGER,    Peter   Tracy.      The    book    of    wheat.      Judd.      1908. 

$2.00.     (Illus.     BibHog.) 
Edgar,  Wm.  C.     The  story  of  a  grain  of  wheat.   Appleton.    1903.    $2.00. 

(Chiefly   historical    and    commercial.      Material    for    compositions. 

40  illus.) 
Freeman,  W.  G.  and  Chandler,  S.  E.    World's  commercial  products. 

$3.50.    (Written   from   English   point  of  view.    Good  book.     Good 

illustrations.) 


378  A  LIST  OF  PUBLICATIONS 

Olsen,  John  C.  Pure  foods  —  their  adulteration,  nutritive  value, 
and  cost.     Ginn.     1911.     $.80. 

RosENAu,  M.  J.  The  milk  question.  Houghton  Mifflin.  1912.  $2.00. 
("Valuable  contribution  to  the  subject  not  only  of  milk,  but  of  foods 
and  sanitation."     From  review  in  Journal  of  home  economics.) 

Sherman,  Henry  C.  Food  products.  Macmillan.  1914.  $2.00. 
(Contains  in  compact  form  the  information  about  food  most  needed 
by  teachers  of  cookery.  May  be  referred  to  for  the  further  develop- 
ment of  nearly  every  topic  treated  of  in  this  textbook.  Valuable 
reference-lists  follow  each  chapter.  Contains  information  about 
food-laws  and  food-inspection.) 

Snyder,  Harry.    Human  foods  and  their  nutritive  value.    Macmillan. 

1910.  $1.25. 

VuLTE,  Hermann  T.  and  Vanderbilt,  Sadie  B.  Food  industries. 
Chemical  Pub.  Co.     Easton,  Pa.    1914.     $1.75. 

Ward,  Artemas,  compiler.  The  grocer's  encyclopedia.  A  compen- 
dium of  useful  information  concerning  foods  of  all  kinds  ...  for 
grocers  and  store-keepers.    Artemas  Ward.    50  Union  Sq.,  New  York. 

1911.  $10.00.     (747  p.,  8i"  X  11''.     An  excellent  reference-book. 
Contains  many  fine  colored  plates  besides  uncolored  photogravures.) 

Whymper,  R.    Cocoa  and  chocolate.     Blakiston.     1912.     $5.00. 
Wiley,  Harvey  W.     Foods  and  their  adulteration.     2d  ed.,  rev.  and 

enl.     1911.     Blakiston.     $4.00. 
Wing,  Henry  H.    Milk  and  its  products.    Macmillan.     1907.    $1.50. 

FOOD  PREPARATION.    NUTRITION 

Bevier,  Isabel  and  Van  Meter,  Anna  R.     Selection  and  preparation 

of  food.     Laboratory  guide.    Whitcomb  and  Barrows.     1907.    $.75. 
Chittenden,     Russell     H.       Nutrition    of    Man.       Stokes.      1907. 

$3.00. 
CoNDiT,  Elizabeth  and  Long,   Jessie  A.      How  to  cook  and  why. 

Harper.     1914.     $1.00. 
Davis,  Nathan  S.,  Jr.     Food  in  health  and  disease.     Blakiston.     1912. 

$3.50.     (Includes   infant   feeding.) 
Farmer,  Fannie  M.      Boston  cooking-school  cook-book.      Rev.    1914. 

Little  Brown.    $1.80. 


BIBLIOGRAPHIES  379 

Farmer,  Fannie  M.    Food  and  cookery  for  the  sick  and  convalescent. 

Rev.  with  additions.     Little  Brown.     1913.    $1.60. 
Friedenwald,  Julius  and  Ruhrah,  John.    Dietetics  for  nurses.    3d  ed., 

rev.  and  enl.    W.  B.  Saunders.     1913.     $1.50. 
GiBBS,  Winifred  S.    Food  for  the  invaUd  and  the  convalescent.     Mac- 

millan.     1912.    $.75.     (For  people  who  must  practice  rigid  economy. 

Based  on  author's  experience  as  dietician  for  the  N.  Y.  Association 

for  Improving  the  Condition  of  the  Poor.) 
Greer,  Edith.     What  children  should  eat.     Human   welfare  publica- 
tions.    Southwest  Harbor,  Me.     1911.     $.25.     Paper.     20  p. 
Greer,  Edith.     Food  —  what  it  is  and  does.     Ginn.     1915.     $1.00. 
Hill,  Janet  McK.     Practical  cooking  and  serving.     Doubleday  Page. 

1908.     $2.00.     (Instructions  for  formal  serving  only.) 
Hill,   Janet  McK.     The  up-to-date   waitress.     Little   Brown.     1910. 

$1.50. 
Hill,   Sarah  C.      Cook-book  for   nurses.      Whitcomb   and   Barrows. 

Boston.     1911.    $.75. 
Hutchison,  Robert.    Food  and  the  principles  of  dietetics.    W.  Wood 

and  Co.     1911.     $3.00. 
Jordan,  Whitman  H.     Principles  of  human  nutrition.      Macmillan. 

1912.    $1.75. 
Lincoln,    Mary    J.      Boston    Cook-book.      Rev.    ed.     1904.      Little 

Brown.     $2.00. 
Lincoln,  Mary  J.  and  Barrows,  Anna.      Home  science  cook-book. 

Whitcomb    and    Barrows.     1910.     $1.00.     (No    recipes.     Describes 

methods    for    inexperienced    cooks.     Classified    under    "breakfast," 

"luncheon,'' "dinner.") 
Mendel,  Lafayette  B.     Childhood  and  youth.     Stokes.     1906.     $.60* 

(Paper  read  before  New  Haven  Mothers'  Club.) 
Nesbitt,  Florence.     Low-cost   cooking.      American  School  of  Home 

Economics.     Chi.     1915.     $.50. 
Norton,  Alice  P.      Food  and  dietetics.      American   School  of  Home 

Economics.     Chi.    1907.     $1.50.     Textbook   ed.     1910.     $1.25. 
Pattee,  Alida  F.     Practical  dietetics  with  reference  to  diet  in  disease. 

6th  ed.,  rev.  and  enl.    A.  F.  Pattee.     134  S.  1st  Av.,  Mt.  Vernon, 

N.  Y.     1910.     $1.50. 
Richards,  Ellen  H.    The  cost  of  food:  a  study  in  dietaries.      1901. 


380  A  LIST  OF  PUBLICATIONS 

The  cost  of  living  as  modified  by  sanitary  science.      1899.     The 
cost  of  shelter.     1905.     Wiley.     $1.00  each. 
Rose,  Mary    S.      Laboratory    handbook    for    dietetics.      Macmillan. 
1912.    $1.10.     (Tables  and  instructions  for  calculating  dietaries.    For 
teachers  and  advanced  students.) 

HOUSEHOLD  EQUIPMENT  AND   MANAGEMENT 

Balderston,  L.  Ray.     Laundering.     L.  Ray  Balderston.     1224  Cherry 

St.,  Phila.    $1.25. 
Child,  Georgie  Boynton.    The  efficient  kitchen.    Robert  M.  McBride. 

1914.     (For  equipment.)     $1.25. 
KiNNE,  Helen.    Equipment  for  teaching  domestic  science.    Whitcomb 

and  Barrows.     1911.     $.80. 
Lancaster,    Maud.      Electric   cooking,    heating,    and   cleaning.      Van 

Nostrand.     1915.     $1.50.     305  illus.    American  edition  revised  by 

Stephen  L.  Coles. 
Mason,    Wm.    P.      Water    supply.      3d    ed.    Wiley.      1902.      $4.00. 

(Exhaustive.) 
Parloa,  Maria.     Home  economics.     Century.     1906.     $1.50. 
Springsteed,  Anne  Frances  (Mrs.  Thos.   Cole).     The  expert  wait- 
ress.   Harper.     1912.     $1.00.        (For    servants.      Simple.       Clear. 

Chapters  on  Carving  and  In  the  invalid's  room.) 
Terrill,  Bertha  M.     Household  management.    American  School  of 

Home  Economics.     1907.     $1.50.     Textbook   ed.     1910.     $1.25. 
Vail,  Mary.      Approved  methods  for  home  laundering.      Proctor  and 

Gamble.     Sent  free.    Advertising  booklet,  but  very  good. 
White,  Marion.    Fuels  of  the  household.    Whitcomb  and  Barrows. 

1909.  $.75. 

CARE  OF  CHILDREN 

Cotton,  Alfred  C.  The  care  of  the  child.  American  School  of  Home 
Economics.     Chi.     1907.     $1.50.     Textbook  edition.     1910.     $1.25. 

Dennett,  Roger  H.     The  healthy  baby.     Macmillan.     1912. 

Dennett,  Roger  H.  Simplified  infant  feeding.  Lippincott.  1915. 
$3.00. 

Holt,  L.  Emmett.  The  care  and  feeding  of  children.  8th  ed.,  rev.  and 
enl.    Appleton.     1915.     $.75. 


BIBLIOGRAPHIES  381 


TEXTBOOKS 

CoNLEY,  Emma.  Nutrition  and  diet  —  a  textbook  for  secondary- 
schools.    Am.  Book  Co.     1913.    $.60.     (Useful  for  pupils.) 

CoNLEY,  Emma.  Principles  of  cooking.  Am.  Book  Co.  1914. 
(Chiefly  practical.     Has  chapter  on  teaching  in  rural  schools.)     $.52. 

FoRSTER,  E.  H.  and  Weigley,  M.  Foods  and  sanitation.  A  textbook 
and  laboratory  manual  for  the  high  school.  Row,  Peterson,  and 
Co.     1914.    $1.00. 

Greer,  Carlotta  C.  Textbook  of  cooking.  Allyn  and  Bacon.  1915. 
$1.25. 

KiNNE,  Helen  and  Cooley,  Anna  M.  Shelter  and  clothing.  Mac- 
millan.  1913.  Foods  and  household  management.  Macmillan. 
1914.     Each  $1.10.    (For  use  in  high  and  normal  schools.) 

Kittredge,  Mabel  Hyde.  Practical  home-making.  A  textbook  for 
young  housekeepers.     Century.     1914.     $.50. 

Morris,  Josephine.  Household  science  and  arts.  Am.  Book  Co. 
1913.  $.60.  (Suggestive  along  practical  lines.  Contains,  besides 
chapters  on  cooking,  short  chapters  on  other  household  topics,  includ- 
ing household  accounts  and  home-maker's  duty  to  herself,  also  one  on 
school-gardens.) 


INDEX 


Abbreviations,  table  of,  52. 
Abrasives,  cleaning  by,  32. 
Absorption  of  food  in  the  body,  371. 
Acetic  acid,  formation  of,  on  dough,  132. 
Acids : 

action  of,  on  metals,  57. 

carbonates,  action  of,  on,  108. 

experiments   with   soda   and   alkalies, 
107,  108. 

foods  supplying,  to  the  body,  143. 

function  in  the  body,  143. 

hydrochloric    acid    in    gastric    juice, 
lactics,  86. 

lactic,  96,  97. 

metals,  action  of,  on,  57. 

neutralization  of,  by  alkalies,  109. 

nitric  acid,  test  for  nitrogenous  sub- 
stances, 86. 

percentage  of,  in  liquors,  144. 

use  of,  in  cleaning,  34. 
Adulteration  in  coffee,  test  for,  341. 
Air: 

batters  made  light  by  beating  in  air, 
107. 

cleanliness,  as  aid  to,  30. 

composition  of,  5. 

natural  cleaner,  30. 

relation  of,  to  fire,  6. 

testing,  for  carbon  dioxide,  6. 
Albumin : 

coagulation  of,  86,  87,  167. 

digestion  of,  86. 

efifect  of  boiling  on,  160. 

effect  of  frying  on,  157. 

effect  of  heat  on,  84. 

in  cheese,  101. 

in  eggs,  84. 

in  meat,  141. 

in  milk,  93,  95. 

in  potatoes,  88. 

test  for,  86. 

use  of,  in  body,  85. 


Alcohol : 

effect  on  body,  144. 

in  yeast,  132. 

preservative,  296. 

produced  by  yeast,  131. 
Alcoholic  liquors,  144. 
AHmentary  canal: 

digestion  of  food  in,  367. 

structure  of,  367. 
Alkalies : 

common  form,  57. 

experiments  with  acids  and,  107. 

for  modifying  milk,  314. 

grease  removed  by,  33. 

kinds  of,  33. 

neutralization  of  acids  by,  109. 
Aluminum : 

care  of  aluminum  ware,  43. 

cleaning,  43. 
Ammonia : 

grease  removed  by,  33. 

hard  water,  softening  with  ammonia, 
25. 
Amylase,  370. 

Amylopsin  in  pancreatic  juice,  197. 
Animal  foods,  150-212. 

See  also  Meat. 
Apple : 

baked,  234. 

composition  of,  229. 

dried,  236. 

for  crab-apple  jelly,  307. 

for  jeUy,  306-307. 

sauce,  233. 

study  of,  228,  229. 
Apple  sauce,  recipe  for,  233. 
Apple  tapioca,  recipe  for,  286. 
Apricots,  236. 
Apron,  special  directions  for  laundwing, 

365. 
Aroma,  340. 
Articles  used  in  cleaning,  46. 


383 


384 


INDEX 


Ash,  in  food,  140. 
Asparagus : 

information  about,  248. 

soup,  254,  255. 

soup,  use  of  asparagus  water  for,  165. 

vegetable  soup,  165. 
Assimilation  of  food,  165. 

Baby: 

artificial  feeding,  309. 

care  of  feeding  bottles,  312. 

feeding  of,  309. 

food  for,  309. 

fresh  milk  substitutes  for,  323. 

general    instructions    about    feeding, 
325. 

gruel  for,  316. 

pasteurized  milk  for,  321-323. 

preparing  food  for,  311. 

water  necessary  for,  325. 
Bacon,  directions  for  cooking,  218. 
Bacteria : 

causing  typhoid  fever,  295. 

compared  with  yeast,  295. 

disease  produced  by,  30. 

experiment  in  growing,  295. 

harmless,  296. 

increase  of,  295. 

in  dust,  30. 

in  impure  water,  24. 

in  milk,  97. 

in  relation  to  cleanliness,  30. 

life  history  of,  295. 

seen  under  microscope,  295. 

souring  of  milk  caused  by,  96. 

spores  of,  296. 

study  of,  294. 
Baking : 

apples  and  pears,  234. 

bakeries,  137,  138. 

bread,  112,  125. 

definition  of  term,  48. 

fish  suitable  for  baking  whole,  202. 

potatoes,  59,  65. 

quick  breads,  112. 

using  gas  range  for,  195. 
Baking  dishes,  355. 
Baking-pans,  greasing,  105. 
Baking-powder : 

composition  of,  107,  108. 

different  kinds  of,  109. 


Baking-powder : 

in  biscuit,  107. 

in  quick  breads,  112,  113. 

leavening  power,  107,  108. 

proportion  to  flour,  111. 

starch  in,  110. 

study  of,  107. 
Baking-soda : 

a  carbonate,  107. 

how  it  makes  griddle  cakes  light,  108. 

in  baking-powder,  108. 

study  of,  107. 

test  for,  109. 

use  with  sour  milk,  109. 
Bananas : 

baked,  234. 

composition  of,  229. 

serving  of,  232. 

See  Fruit. 
Barley : 

barley  water,  318. 

cereal  food,  73. 

soup,  making -and  serving,  163. 
Bases,  formation  of,  157. 
Basting,  reason  for,  159. 
Bath  brick,  use  of,  for  cleaning  knives, 

42. 
Batter : 

action  of  carbon  dioxide  on  batter,  105, 
111. 

definition  of,  105. 

kinds  of.  111. 

ingredients,  means  of   lightening  and 
shortening,  107. 

See  also  Dough. 
Beans : 

composition  of,  245. 

information  about,  248. 

preparing  for  salad,  259. 

proteid  food,  238. 
Beating,  directions  for,  90. 
Beef: 

h  la  mode,  173. 

corned  beef  hash,  recipe  for,  175. 

cuts  of,  178. 

cut  up  for  sale,  177. 

description  of  cut,  178. 

directions  for  roasting,  159. 

flesh  of  cattle  known  as  beef,  150. 

how  sold,  186. 

how  to  know  good,  155. 


INDEX 


385 


Beef: 

location  of  cuts  of  beef,  178,  179. 

loin  of,  179,  190,  191. 

prepared  for  eating,  186,  187. 

raw  beef  sandwiches  for  invalids,  151. 

recipe  for  rolled  flank  of,  173. 

selection  of  good  beef,  155. 

sirloin  of,  155,  179,  187. 

stewing,  173. 
Beef  juice : 

directions  for  extracting,  151,  152. 

preparing,  334. 
Beefsteak : 

broiling,  directions  for,  156. 

cuts  of,  186,  187. 

how  sold,  186. 
Beef  tea : 

directions  for  preparing,  152,  334. 

recipe  for,  152. 
Beets,  information  about,  249. 
Beet  sugar,  266,  267. 
Benzoate  of  soda,  297. 
Beverages,  definition  of,  144,  337. 
Bile,  196,  369. 
Biscuits,  recipe  for  tea,  105. 
Blacking  for  stoves,  composition  of,  45. 
Blade  of  beef,  187. 
Bleaching,  360. 
Blood,  143. 

Bluefish,  information  about,  209. 
Bluing,  362. 
Body: 

compared  to  steam  engine,  71. 

demand  for  water,  337. 

repairs  itself,  72. 

starch  fuel  for,  70. 

work  of,  70. 
Body  stuffs  and  foodstuffs,  139. 
Boiling : 

clothes,  362. 

coffee,  342. 

definition  of  term,  69. 

directions  for,  160. 

fish,  203. 

leg  of  mutton,  60. 

potatoes,  59,  64. 

sugar,  271. 
Boiling-point  of  water,  25. 
Bones : 

calcium  found  in,  143. 

effect  of  cooking  on,  164. 
2c 


Bones : 

soup-stock,  use  of  bones  in  the  making, 
162. 

structure  and  composition  of,  163. 

study  of,  163. 
Borax,  33. 

Boric  acid,  solution,  313. 
Bottles,  312. 

Brains  of  calves  used  as  food,  183. 
Brain  workers,  diet  for,  147. 
Braising : 

definition  of,  49. 

helpful  hints  about,  174. 
Brass,  cleaning  of,  34. 
Bread : 

baking,  125. 

Boston  brown,  114. 

characteristics  of  good,  118. 

digestion  and  food  value,  137. 

fancy  bread  recipes,  135. 

hints  about  making,  127. 

hints  on  mixing  and  kneading,  123-125. 

kneading,  125. 

making,  133. 

quick  bread,  104. 

reasons  for  chewing,  137. 

recipe  for,  123. 

rising,  125. 

soft  corn,  115. 

to  toast,  89. 

uses  for  stale,  134. 

white,  127. 

whole  wheat,  127. 

yeast  bread,  123. 
Bread  crumbs,  uses  for,  134. 
Bread  pudding : 

recipe  for,  284. 

variations  of,  285. 
Bread  sticks  and  rolls,  making,  126. 
Breakfast  cereals : 

cooking,  73,  75,  79. 

hints  about,  78. 

proportion  of  salt  and  water  for,  79. 

time  table  for  cooking,  79. 
Breakfast  foods : 

care  of,  75. 

cereals,  73. 

kinds  of,  75. 

method  of  cooking,  75. 

starch  in,  75. 

See  Cereals. 


386 


INDEX 


Brief  reference  list,  73, 80,  82,  93,  103, 
116,  145,  148, 185,  200,  226,  237,  263, 
273,  297,  303,  308,  326,  336,  347,  355, 
359,  364,  371. 
Brisket  of  beef,  location  of,  179,  188. 
Broiling : 

beef  steak,  156. 

best  cuts  for,  155. 

chops  broiled  in  paper,  335. 

definition  of  term,  48. 

directions  for,  156. 

fish,  202,  203. 

gas  range,  using  for,  19,  156. 

pan  broiling,  157. 
Brown  gravy,  making,  159. 
Brown  stew,  making,  172. 
Brown  sugar,  267. 
Burners  of  gas  ranges,  18. 
Butter : 

composition  of,  217. 

food  value  of,  101. 

maltre  d'hotel,  recipe  for,  157. 

making,  100. 

renovated,  100. 

study  of,  100. 

test  for,  100. 
Butter  cakes,  274,  275. 
Buttered  crumbs  for  scalloped  dishes,  121. 
Butterine,  composition  of,  215. 
Buttermilk,  94. 
Butter,  peanut,  215. 
Butter  spreaders,  351. 
Buying  coal,  17. 

Cabbage : 

cole-slaw,  264. 

information  about,  249. 
Cakes : 

directions  for  baking,  276. 

directions  for  mixing,  275. 

frosting,  icing,  and  filling  for,  281,  282. 

general  rules  for  proportions  of  ingre- 
dients in,  274. 

points  to  be  remembered  in  making, 
280. 

recipes  for,  278-280. 

two  classes  of,  274. 
Calcium : 

in  bones,  143. 

in  water,  24. 

sulphate,  57. 


Calcium  phosphate,  in  bones,  163. 
Calories,  definition  of,  146,  147. 
Candle,  burning,  experiments  and  expla- 
nation, 6,  7. 
Candy : 

butter  scotch,  271. 

fondant,  272. 

fudge,  272. 

molasses,  271. 

peanut  brittle,  271. 

to  make,  271. 
Canned  vegetables,  serving,  244. 
Canning : 

foods,  302. 

fruit  for,  299. 

kettle  method  of,  302. 

method  of,  299,  301. 

outfit  for,  299,  302. 

preparing  fruit  for,  299. 

reasons  for,  298. 

to  sterilize  food  for,  297. 
Canning  powders,  297. 
Caramel : 

custard,  284. 

from  dextrin,  69. 

making,  284. 

potatoes,  caramel  in,  69. 
Carbohydrates : 

composition  of,  72. 

food  value  of,  146. 

functions  of,  72,  141. 

in  foodstuff's,  140. 

in  vegetables,  240. 

special  value  of,  142. 
Carbon : 

coal  a  form  of,  17. 

combustion  of,  55. 

element  in  body,  56,  57. 

in  starch,  68. 

in  wood,  5. 
Carbonates,  action  of  acids  on,  108. 
Carbon  dioxide : 

experiment  for,  6. 

from  coal,  18. 

in  air,  5,  6. 

in  yeast,  129,  131. 
Care  of : 

articles  used  in  cleaning,  46. 

dishes,  40. 

faucets,  39. 

garbage  pail,  39. 


INDEX 


387 


Care  of : 

hard  wood  floor,  36. 

kitchen  floor,  35. 

kitchen  towels  and  cloths,  44. 

oU-cloth,  36. 

refrigerator,  45. 

sink,  39. 

stove,  45. 

waste  pipe  and  trap,  39. 
Carrot : 

foodstuff,  238. 

study  of,  237. 
Cartilage  surrounding  bone,  163. 
Casein,  in  cheese,  95,  101. 
Caseinogen,  95. 
Celery : 

information  about  serving,  247,  250. 

vegetable  soup,  254. 
Cells : 

in  body,  139. 

in  starch,  68,  139. 

yeast  cell,  139. 
Cereals : 

compared  with  potatoes,  73. 

directions  for  cooking,  76. 

double  boiler,  74. 

food  value  of,  78. 

food  value  of,  compared  with  potatoes, 
73. 

fruit  with,  75. 

preparation  of,  73. 

served  cold,  76. 

steam  cooked,  75. 

time  table  for  cooking,  79. 
Chalk,  insoluble  in  water,  23. 
Chartreuse,  rice  and  meat,  176. 
Check  damper  in  coal  range,  use  of,  11. 
Cheese : 

composition  of,  87,  102. 

cottage,  98,  101. 

crackers,  102. 

digestibility  of,  367. 

fondue,  102. 

food  value  of,  101. 

ramikins,  103. 

with  macaroni,  122. 
Chemical  changes,  55. 
Chemical  elements  and  compounds : 

definition  of,  56. 

found  in  food,  56. 
Chemicals,  for  laundry,  360. 


Cherries,  canning,  299. 
Chicken : 

fricassee,  199. 

parts  of,  195,  196. 

roasting,  197. 

selecting,  195. 

stuffing  for,  197. 

to  dress  and  clean,  195. 
Chicory,  341. 
Chlorine,  57. 
Chlorophyll,  129. 
Chocolate : 

adulteration  of,  345. 

composition  and  food  value  of,  345. 

hot  chocolate,  346. 

manufacture  of,  344. 

milk,  344,  345. 

sweet,  344. 
Chocolate  icing,  282. 
Chocolate  layer  cake,  280. 
Chops : 

broiled  in  paper,  335. 

lamb  and  mutton,  157,  180,  191, 192. 
Chuck,   ribs  of   beef,   location   of,    179, 

188. 
Chyme,  370. 
Clam  broth,  335. 
Cleaning : 

articles  of,  45. 

by  friction,  32. 

care  of  articles  used  in,  46. 

care  of  stove  and  zinc,  45. 

faucet,  39. 

"First  aid  to,"  31. 

garbage  pail,  39. 

importance  of,  29. 

labor  savers,  31. 

metals,  33. 

paint,  36. 

personal  cleanliness,  46. 

powders,  33. 

refrigerator,  45. 

scrubbing  and  sweeping,  35. 

silver,  43. 

sink,  37. 

wood  work,  35. 
Cleaning  of  wheat  in   manufacture   of 

flour,  118. 
Cleansers : 

ammonia,  33. 

chemical,  32. 


388 


INDEX 


Cleansers  : 

natural,  30. 

petroleum,  33. 
Clearing  soup,  directions  for,  161. 
Clearing  table,  354. 
Clove  of  garlic  for  salad  flavoring,  260, 

261. 
Coagulation,  85. 
Coal: 

artificial  gas  from,  19. 

economy  in  use  of,  18. 

grades  of,  18. 

kind  of,  17. 

story  of,  16. 

use  of,  17. 
Coal  range : 

how  to  manage,  11. 

parts  of,  9,  10. 
Cockroaches  in  kitchen,  exterminating, 

46. 
Cocoa : 

breakfast,  356. 

composition  and  food  value  of,  345. 

cracked,  345. 

manufacture  of,  344. 

removing  stains  of,  364. 
Codfish  cakes,  recipe  for,  224. 
Cod,  information  about,  208. 
Coffee : 

adulteration,  340. 

directions  for  making,  342. 

filtered,  343. 

food  value,  341. 

in  market,  340. 

on  plantation,  340. 

study  of,  340. 

substitutes  for,  342. 
Coffee  jelly,  170. 

Coffee  rennet  custard,  recipe  for,  99. 
Cold-storage,  84. 
Cole-slaw,  264. 

Collagen,  function  of,  in  the  body,  164. 
Combustion : 

definition  of,  7. 

kindling  point,  13. 

products  of,  8. 

study  of,  5. 
Composition  of  (charts) : 

bread,  124. 

cereals,  77. 

eggs  and  cheese,  87. 


Composition  of  (charts)  : 

fats,  217. 

fish,  205. 

fruits,  228. 

meats,  153. 

milk,  94. 

nuts,  214. 

vegetables,  239. 
Compound,  definition  of,  56. 
Convalescent,  diet,  328. 
Cookery,  theory  and  practice,  2. 
Cookies,  279. 

Cooking  of  food,  reasons  for,  48. 
Cooking : 

bacon,  directions  for,  216. 

breakfast  food,  75. 

cereals,  steam  used  in,  73. 

effect  on  digestibility  of  fats,  216. 

how  to  work,  52. 

principal  methods  of,  48. 

suggestions  about  using,  225. 
Corn,  80. 
Corn  meal : 

gruel,  330. 

muffins,  115. 
Cornstarch  meringue,  recipe  for,  286. 
Corn  syrup,  268. 
Cottage  cheese,  98. 
Cottage  pudding,  277. 
Cotton,  313. 
Cottonseed  oil,  215. 
Crabs,  212. 

Cracked  cocoa,  cocoa  made  from,  342. 
Crackers,  cheese,  102. 
Cranberry  jelly,  235. 
Cream: 

for  butter,  100. 

whipped,  101. 
Creamed  fish,  preparing,  204. 
Creamed  potatoes,  recipe  for,  65. 
Cream  of  tartar : 

in  baking-powder,  108. 

in  fondant,  273. 
Cream  of  vegetable  soups,  254. 
Cream  sauce,  recipe  for,  66. 
Creamy  rice  pudding,  recipe  for,  287. 
Croquettes : 

chicken,  223. 

codfish,  224. 

material  for,  222. 

potatoes,  223. 


INDEX 


389 


Croquettes : 

rice,  224. 

serving,  355. 

shaping  and  crumbing,  222. 

white  sauce  for,  223. 
Cross-rib  of  beef,  location,  etc.,  179,  188. 
Cro<itons,  to  prepare,  253. 
Crumbs : 

buttered  for  scalloped  dishes,  121. 

uses  for  bread,  134. 
Crustaceans,  definition  of,  212. 
Crust   of   bread,    composition    of,     116, 

134. 
Cucumbers,  247. 
Cup  cake,  making  (table),  280. 
Cup  custards,  recipe  for,  92. 
Curd  of  milk,  93,  96. 
Currant  jeUy,  306. 
Currants  for  rolls,  136. 
Custard : 

caramel,  284. 

cup,  92. 

plain,  285. 

rennet,  98,  99. 

to  prevent  curdling,  285. 
Cutlets,  veal,  181. 
Cuts  of  meat,  177. 

Damper,  use  of,  11. 
Dates,  food  value  of,  236. 
Decoction,  337. 
Decorating  table,  350. 
Decorations,  350. 

Delmonico  steaks,  description  of,  178. 
Desserts,  remarks  about,  283. 
Dextrin : 

from  starch,  69. 

in  crust,  116. 
Diastase,  81. 
Diet: 

babies,  for,  309,  325. 

importance  of,  in  cases  of  sickness,  327. 

liquid  and  light,  327. 

mixed  diet,  reasons  for,  146. 

practical  points  about  feeding  a  family, 
147. 

requirements  of,  146,  147. 
Dietaries,  calculation  of,  147. 
Digestibility  of  foods,  367. 
Digestion : 

absorption  of  food,  371. 


Digestion  : 

action  of  digestive  juices  on  articles  of 
food,  369. 

definition  of,  366. 

intestinal,  370. 

in  the  mouth,  369. 

in  the  stomach,  369. 

juices  for,  368. 

mastication  of  food,  368. 

mechanical  and  chemical  changes  in, 
368. 

of  albumin,  86. 

of  bread,  137. 

of  fat,  216. 

of  fish,  206. 

of  meat,  184. 

of  milk,  99. 

of  poultry  and  game,  194. 

of  quick  breads,  115. 

of  starch,  70,  366. 

structure  of  alimentary  canal,  367. 

summary    of    process    of     digestion, 
369. 
Dining  room,  349. 
Dinner : 

menu  for,  357. 

order  of  work  in  preparing,  358. 
Diseased  pork,  precaution  against,  183. 
Dish-cloths,  cleaning,  44. 
Dishes,  care  of,  40. 
Dishing  up,  general  rules  fofr,  355. 
Dish-washing,  directions  for,  40. 
Disinfectants : 

definition  of,  30. 

kinds  of,  33. 

preservatives  of  food,  283. 
Distillate  oil,  19. 
Domestic  science : 

definition  of,  2. 

general  value  of,  3. 
Double  boiler,  how  to  use,  74. 
Dough : 

definition  of,  111. 

kneading,  125. 

raising,  125. 
Drafts,  explanation  of,  7. 
Drafts  in  coal  range,  10. 
Drawn  butter,  recipe  for,  204. 
Dried  fruits : 

composition  and  use  of,  229. 

imported  fruits,  cleaning,  236. 


390 


INDEX 


Drinking  water,  characteristics  of  good, 

24. 
Drop-batter,  definition  of.  111. 
Ducks,  195. 
Dumplings  for  brown  beef  stew,  recipe 

for,  172. 
Dust: 

definition  of,  30. 

kinds  of,  29. 

microscopic  plants  in,  30. 
Dusting,  directions  for,  36. 

Economy : 

in  choosing  fresh  vegetables,  241. 

in  marketing  and  choosing  meat,  183. 

in  using  the  best  flour,  120. 

soup  an  economical  dish,  161. 
Egg  muffins,  recipe  for,  113. 
Egg  nog,  recipe  for,  331. 
Eggs: 

albumin  in,  83. 

beating,  90. 

breaking  and  separating,  90. 

care  and  preservation  of,  83. 

composition  of,  88. 

digestion  of,  86,  88. 

food  value  of,  88. 

gruel,  331. 

in  a  nest,  91. 

nog,  331. 

preparations  for  invalids,  330. 

raw,  330. 

selecting  and  testing,  84. 

shirred  eggs,  331. 

soft  cooked,  88. 

study  of,  83. 

temperature  for  cooking,  84. 

See  also  Albumin. 
Electric  iron,  364. 
Electricity,  cooking  by,  21. 
Electrolysis,  cleaning  silver  by,  43. 
Emulsion,  experiment  to  illustrate,  99. 
Endosperm,  117. 
Energy  in  coal,  17. 
Energy  suppUed  to  body  by  food,  71,  72, 

269. 
Entire  wheat  flour,  production  of,  119. 
Enzyms,  131,  132,  295,  368. 
Experiments : 

action  of  cold  water  on  meat,  154. 

butter  making,  100. 


Experiments : 

growth  of  yeast,  128. 

in  growing  bacteria,  294. 

in  heating  dry  starch,  69. 

nature  and  action  of  protein,  151. 

sources  of  starch,  67. 

sprouting  of  potato  and  its  composi- 
tion, 63. 

to  find  out  what  potato  contains,  61. 

to  find  temperature  for  cooking  eggs, 
84. 

to  illustrate  emulsion,  99. 

to  prevent  starch  lumping,  68. 

to  show  action  of  saliva  on  starch, 
60. 

to  show  effect  of  cold  and  of  hot  water 
on  meat,  160. 

to  show  effect  of  heat  on  water,  25. 

to  show  how  eggs  are  digested,  86. 

with  a  candle,  6. 

with  glucose  and  with  white  sugar,  265. 

with  heated  fat,  218. 

with  molasses,  268. 

Family : 

points  about  feeding,  147. 

welfare,  1. 
Fancy  breads,  recipe  for,  133. 
Fancy  omelets,  92. 
Farina,  steaming,  79. 
Fat: 

animal,  213. 

boiling,  219. 

changing  proportion  of,  in  milk,  319. 

clarifying,  220. 

composition  of,  213. 

cooking,  218,  225. 

distinguished  from  oil,  213. 

experiments  with  heated,  218. 

food  value  of,  216. 

for  frying,  220. 

function  of,  in  the  body,  140,  216. 

in  foodstuffs,  140. 

lowering  content  of,  in  milk,  319. 

removing  from  stock,  166. 

special  value  of,  141. 

testing  of,  for  frying,  221. 

use  of,  for  shortening,  225. 

vegetable,  213. 
Faucets,  cleaning  of,  39. 
Feeding  bottles,  312. 


INDEX 


391 


Fehling's  solution,  test  for  maltose,  70. 
Fermentation,  explanation  of,  131,  294. 
Fermented  liquors,  effect  of,   on  body, 

144. 
Fibre : 

in  meat,  50. 

in  potatoes,  62. 

in  vegetables,  240. 
Figs,  food  value  of,  236. 
Fillings  for  cakes,  recipes  for,  281. 
Filters,  cleansing,  etc.,  24. 
Finger  bowls,  353. 
Finger  rolls,  making,  126. 
Fire: 

and  fuels,  5. 

cleaning  fire-box,  11. 

definition  of  kindling  point,  12. 

how  to  make,  11. 

how  to  manage,  12,  14, 

laying  a  fire,  11. 

relation  to  air,  5-15. 

starting  fire,  11. 
Fireless  cooker : 

directions  for  use,  20. 

with  gas  range,  14. 
Fish: 

cleaning  and  creaming,  201,  204. 

directions    for    baking,    boiling,    and 
broiling,  202,  203. 

distinction  from  shellfish,  200. 

food  value  and  digestibility  for,  206. 

fresh  water,  209. 

how  to  clean,  201. 

how  to  know,  201. 

information  about,  208. 

kinds  of,  208,  209. 

larding,  202. 

methods  of  preserving,  206. 

reheating,  204. 

salt  water,  208. 

sauces  for,  202,  204. 

scalloped,  204. 

selecting,  202-203. 

special  care  in  cooking,  206. 

structure  of,  201. 

stuffing  for,  202. 

suitable  for  baking,  202, 

suitable  for  broiling,  202. 

table  of  information  about,  208,  209. 

to  prepare  for  eating,  208,  209. 
Fish  balls,  recipe  for,  222. 


Flame : 

candle,  7. 

definition  of,  7. 
Flank   of  beef,   location   of,   etc.,    178, 

187. 
Floor: 

care  of,  35,  36. 

linoleum  covered,  35.  . 

Flour : 

good  bread,  120. 

kinds  of,  119. 

manufacture  of,  116. 
Flour  plaster,  macaroni,  etc.,  120. 
Folding,  directions  for,  91. 
Fondant,  272. 
Food : 

absorption  of,  371. 

acid  forming,  143. 

adulteration,  53. 

animal  and  plant  foods,  145. 

base  forming,  143. 

composition  of,  77. 

definition  of,  48. 

directions  for,  50. 

for  sick,  327. 

functions  of,  142. 

importance  at  regular  meals,  348. 

methods  of  cooking,  58, 

microorganisms  in  relation  to,  294. 

preservation  of,  294-308. 

pure,  53, 

reasons  for  cooking,  58. 

requirements,  146. 

serving  of,  348. 

tables,  49,  50. 

valuable  properties  of,  145. 

waste  in,  144. 
Food  adjuncts,  definition  of,  144. 
Foodstuffs : 

composition  of,  140. 

when  digested,  369.  ( 

Force  supplied  to  the  body  by  food,  78, 

143. 
Formula,   for  modified   milk,    317;   top 

milk,  314, 
Fowls,  see  Chickens.  y 

Freezing,  ice  cream  and  ices,  288.  / 

Freezing  point,  27.  ^ 

French  bread-pans,  use  of,  131. 
French  dressing  for  salads,  262. 
French  omelet,  recipe  for,  91. 


392 


INDEX 


Fricassee : 

chicken,  199. 

cutting  up  a  fowl  for,  198. 

definition  of,  199. 
Friction,  use  of,  in  cleaning,  32. 
Frosting,  281. 
Fruit : 

addition  of  sugar  and  water  to,  300. 

cake,  267. 

citrus,  232. 

composition  of,  229. 

definition  of,  227. 

directions  for  canning,  301. 

directions  for  stewing,  233. 

dried,  236. 

effect  of  cooking  on,  231. 

food  value  of,  229. 

preparing,  231. 

preparing  for  canning,  299. 

removing  fruit  stains,  46. 

right  sort  to  can,  299. 

serving,  232. 

sterilizing  in  jars,  299. 

sugaring,  232. 

suggestions  about  eating,  230. 

time  required  for  sterilizing,  300. 

with  cereals,  75. 
Frying : 

definition,  59. 

digestion  of  fried  food,  216. 

directions  for,  221. 

effect  on  meat  and  albumin,  251. 

food  suitable  for,  221. 

oysters,  224. 

points  about,  219. 

preparing  fat  for,  220. 

temperature  of  fat  for,  221. 
Fudge,  272. 
Fuel: 

and  fire,  5. 

definition  of,  16. 

distilled  oil,  19. 

foodstuffs  as,  146. 

kerosene,  18. 

kinds  of,  16,  17. 

natural  gas,  19. 

use  of  coal,  wood,  etc.,  16-19. 
Fuel  foods : 

fat  from  animals  and  oil  from  plants, 
213,  215. 

for  the  body,  70. 


Fuel  foods,  starchy  plants,  70. 

Game: 

food  value  of,  194. 

selection  of,  194. 
Garbage  pail,  care  of,  39. 
Gas,  artificial,  natural,  19. 
Gases,  explanation  of,  27. 
Gasoline,  33. 
Gas  range : 

care  of,  15. 

how  to  manage,  15. 

parts  of,  12. 

with  fireless  cooker,  21. 
Gastric  juice : 

action  on  meat,  185. 

composition  of,  369. 

effect  on  proteins,  86. 

enzyms  in,  369. 

glands  in  stomach  secreting,  369. 
Gelatine : 

as  good  food,  171. 

directions  for  using,  169. 

how  made,  170. 

in  bones,  164. 

jellies,  recipe  for,  170. 
Gingerbread,  278. 

Ginger  snaps,  whole  wheat  making,  279. 
Glasses,  washing,  41. 
Gluten : 

composition  of,  117. 

definition  of,  116. 

recipe  for  gluten  wafers,  333. 

test  for,  117. 
Gold  cake,  278. 
Goose,  195. 
Graham  flour,  120. 

Granulated  sugar,  manufacture  of,  267. 
Grape-fruit,  serving,  232. 
Grape-sugar,  definition  of,  264. 
Gravy: 

brown,  to  make,  159. 

giblet,  198. 
Grease,  removal  of,  33,  35. 
Greasing  cake-pans,  267. 
Green  pea  soup,  253. 
Green  vegetables,  care  and  cooking  of, 

243. 
Griddle,  how  to  use,  107. 
Griddle  cakes,  a  quick  bread  recipe,  104- 
106. 


INDEX 


393 


Gristle,  163. 
Gruel: 

corn  meal,  330. 

egg,  331. 

for  modifying  milk,  314. 

shredded  wheat,  330. 

Haddock,  information  of,  208. 
Halibut,  information  about,  208. 
Hams,  182. 
Hard  coal,  17,  18. 
Hard  sauce,  recipe  for,  282. 
Hard  water,  softening,  24. 
Hard  wood  floor,  care  of,  36. 
Harvesting,  wheat,  81. 
Hash : 

browning  hash,  176. 

corn  beef,  176. 

directions  for  making,  175. 

fish,  203. 

minced  meat  on  toast,  176. 
Health,  water  in  relation  to,  28. 
Heat: 

albumin,  heat  as  a  test  for,  85. 

effect  of  heat  on  starch,  68. 

effect  of  heat  on  sugar,  265. 

effect  of  heat  on  water,  23. 

expansion  due  to,  27. 

source  of,  17. 

yeast,  growth  of,  aided  by,  129. 

See  also  Fuel  foods. 
Helpful  hints  about : 

braising  and  stewing,  174. 

bread  making,  133. 

jam  and  jelly  making,  308. 

mixing  and  baking  quick  breads,  112. 

soup  stock,  160. 
Homemaking : 

business  of,  1. 

industries,  1,  2. 

training  for,  2,  3. 
Hominy,  purchase  of  and  directions  for 

cooking,  76,  79. 
Honey,  267. 

Household  science,  definition  of,  2. 
Housekeeping,  women  in,  1. 
How  to  pass  food,  354. 
Huckleberries,  indigestibility  of,  230. 
Human  body : 

compared  with  steam  engine,  56. 

elements  in,  56. 


Human  body : 

food  for,  56. 

work  of,  70. 
Hydrochloric  acid,  86. 
Hydrogen : 

an  element  in  food,  56. 

definition  of,  56. 

in  starch,  70. 

to  form  water,  56. 
Hydrolysis,  366. 

Ice : 

freezing  point  of  water,  28. 

in  drinking  water,  28. 

purity  of,  28. 

salt  with,  in  freezing  mixture,  287. 

to  form  a  freezing  mixture,  287. 

See  Water  ices. 
Ice-box,  care  of,  45. 
Ice-cream : 

American,  290. 

chocolate,  290. 

directions  for  freezing,  288. 

flavorings  for,  290. 

junket,  290. 

made  without  freezer,  289. 

peach,  290. 

recipe  for  plain,  289. 

strawberry,  290. 
Iced  tea,  339. 
Ices.     See  Water  ices. 
Icings  for  cake : 

chocolate,  282. 

quick  frosting,  281. 

soft  frosting,  281. 
Implements  and  materials  for  cleaning, 

33,  36,  37,  43. 
Indian  corn,  79. 
Indigestion,  367. 
Infusion,  337. 

Ingredients  in  cakes,  proportion  of,  274. 
Inorganic,  impurities  in  water,  23. 
Insects  in  kitchen,  extermination  of,  46. 
Intestinal  juice,  369. 
InvaUd : 

diet  for,  327-336. 

eggs  for,  331. 

gruels  for,  330. 

jellies  for,  333. 

milk  preparations  for,  331. 

tray  for,  336. 


394 


INDEX 


Iodine,  as  test  for  starch,  61. 
Irish  moss  jelly,  333. 
Irish  moss  lemonade,  336. 
Irish  oats,  76. 
Iron : 

cleaning,  34. 

in  blood,  143. 
Ironing : 

irons  for,  364. 

plain  pieces,  365. 

starched  pieces,  365. 
Italian  pastes,  121. 

Jam : 

blackberry  or  raspberry,  304. 

helpful  hints  about  making,  308. 
Jars: 

to  sterilize,  298. 

to  test,  298. 
Javelle  water,  364. 
Jelly: 

best  fruits  for,  306. 

coffee,  170. 

cranberry,  236. 

directions  for  making,  306,  307. 

gelatin,  169. 

Irish  moss,  333. 

lemon,  170. 

requirements  for,  305. 

utensils  needed  for  making,  306. 

wine,  335. 
Junket,  ice-cream,  98,  290. 

Kephir,  332. 
Kerosene : 

as  cleanser,  33. 

preparation  of,  18. 

use  of,  18. 
Kindling  point,  definition  of,  12,  13. 
Kitchen    towels,    and    clothes,    care 

44. 
Kneading,  directions  for,  125. 

reasons  for,  133. 
Knives,  steel,  cleaning,  42. 
Knuckle  of  veal,  location  of,  181. 
Kumiss,  332. 

Labor-savers,  31. 

Lacteals,  digestion  of  fat  by,  216. 

Lactic  acid,  332. 

Lactose,  95, 


of. 


Lamb: 

cuts  of,  180. 

directions  for  roasting,  358. 

good  meat,  selection  of,  182. 

how  sweet,  191. 

prepared  for  eating,  191. 

stewing,  171. 
Larding : 

fish,  202. 

steak,  174. 
Laundering : 

order  of  work,  361-363. 

special  instructions  for,  360-365. 

washing  machines,  361. 
Laying  fires,  11. 
Laying  the  table,  350-353. 
Leaf-lard,  182. 
Lean  meat,  155. 
Leg  of  mutton : 

broiling,  157. 

location  of,  180. 
Legumes,  240. 
Legumin,  240. 
Lemonade : 

Irish  moss,  making,  336. 

recipe  for,  235. 
Lemon  ice,  291.       , 
Lemon  jelly,  170. 
Lemon  sauce,  282. 
Lemon  whey,  recipe  for,  336. 
Lentiles,  238. 
Lettuce,  for  salad,  249. 
Light  diet  for  sick,  327. 
Lightening  batters,  105-111. 
Light  fruit  cake,  274. 
Lighting  gas  ranges,  15. 
Lima  beans,  information,  246. 
Lime,  function  in  body,  140. 
Lime  water,  in  milk  formulas,  318-319. 
Linen,  350. 
Lipase,  369,  370. 
Liquid  diet  for  sick,  327. 
Liquid  yeast,  129. 
Liquors,  alcoholic,  144. 
Liquors,  explanation,  27. 
Litmus  paper,  test  for  alkali  and  acid,  108. 
Loaf  sugar,  267. 
Lobster,  212. 
Loganberry,  230. 

Loin  of  beef,  mutton,  lamb,  179, 186,  191. 
Luncheon,  359, 


INDEX 


395 


Macaroni,  120. 

baked  with  cheese,  122. 
composition,  120. 

good  macaroni,  120. 

manufacture  of,  120,  121. 
Mac^doine  salad,  260. 
Mackerel,  208. 
Maltre  d'hotel  butter,  157. 
Maize,  79. 
Malt,  318. 
Maltose,  318. 
Manufactures : 

chocolate,  344. 

cocoa,  344. 

flour,  118. 

gelatin,  170. 

sugar,  267. 
Maple  sugar,  manufacture  of,  266,  267. 
Marketing,  economy  in,  183. 
Marmalade,  304. 
Marrow,  in  bone,  163. 
Mashed  potato,  recipe  for,  65. 
Mastication  of  food,  194. 
Mayonnaise  dressing,  262. 
Meals : 

importance  of  regular,  349. 

planning,  147. 

preparing,  356. 

suggestions  for  order  of  work,  356. 
Measures,  directions  and  tables  for,  49, 

50-52. 
Meat: 

action  of  cold  water  and  salt  upon,  154. 

care  of  uncooked,  154. 

chartreuse  of  rice  and,  176. 

cold  storage  of,  184. 

composition  of,  184. 

cuts  of,  177. 

digestion  of,  184. 

economy  in  buying,  183. 

food  value  of,  184. 

inspection  of,  183. 

marketing,  177. 

minced  on  toast,  176. 

preparations  for  sick,  334-335. 

reasons  for  cooking,  154. 

salt  upon,  161. 

structure  of,  150. 

table   of   information   about   cuts   of, 
186-193. 

tough  and  tender,  155. 


Meat : 

uses  for  the  gelatin  parts  of,  161. 
Meat  pie,  177. 
Melons,  232. 
Menu : 

breakfast,  356. 

dinner,  357. 

luncheon,  359. 
Meringue : 

corn  starch,  286. 

egg,  286. 
Metals : 

action  of  acids  on,  57. 

cleaning,  experiments,  33. 

rust  and  tarnish,  removing,  34. 
Microorganisms : 

definition  of,  294. 

in  food,  294. 
Milk: 

action  of  rennet  on,  98. 

analysis,  93. 

bacteria  in,  314. 

boiled,  323. 

canned,  323. 

care  of,  96. 

composition  of,  95,  309. 

condensed,  323. 

diet  for  babies,  309. 

digestion  of,  99. 

directions  for  buying,  96. 

dried,  324. 

fermented,  332. 

food  value  of,  95. 

goat,  309. 

good,  96. 

increasing  proportion  of  fat  in,  319. 

ingredients  used  in  modifying,  314. 

lactic  acid  in,  96. 

malted,  324. 

modifying,  310. 

pasteurizing,  322. 

peptonized,  332. 

preparations  for  invalids,  331. 

preparations  for  sick,  331. 

skim,  96. 

sour,  96. 

sterilized,  323. 

study  of,  93. 

sugar,  315. 

teinporary   substitutes  for  fresh,   for 
baby,  323. 


396 


INDEX 


Milk : 

use  of  skim  milk,  320. 
Milk  sugar,  266. 
Mince  meat  on  toast,  176. 
Mineral  matter : 

importance  of,  142. 

in  eggs,  88. 

in  foodstuff,  140. 
Mint  sauce,  358. 

Mixed  vegetable  soup,  recipe  for,  168. 
Mixing,  directions  for,  making   muffins, 

bread,  113. 
Modifying  milk,  310. 
Molasses,  268. 
Molasses  candy,  271. 
Molds,  30. 
Muffins : 

a  quick  bread,  104. 

corn  meal,  115. 

egg  muffins,  113. 

hints  on  mixing,  112. 

plain,  113. 

recipes  for,  113. 

whole  wheat,  113. 
Muscular  tissue,  150. 
Muskmelons,  serving,  232. 
Mutton : 

boiling  leg,  directions  for,  154. 

chops,  broiling,  155. 

cuts  of,  180,  191. 

how  stewed,  191. 

preparing  for  eating,  191. 

selection,  155. 
Mutton  broth,  334. 

Naphtha  soap,  360. 

Napkins,  352. 

Natural  science,  definition  of,  1. 

Neck,  179,  191. 

Nipples : 

care  of,  313,  326. 

selection  of,  313. 
Nitric  acid,  test  for  protein,  151. 
Nitrogen: 

an  element  in  body,  57. 

in  air,  5. 

in  proteins,  86. 
Nitrogenous  foods,  definition  of,  86. 
Noodles,  121. 
Normal  diet : 

directions  for  seasoning,  74. 


Normal  diet : 

explanation  of,  146. 

Oatmeal : 

gruel,  recipe  for,  316. 

steamed  whole,  74. 

value  as  food,  78. 
Oatmeal  water  for  babies,  316. 
(Esophagus,  367. 
Oil-cloth,  care  of,  36. 
Oils: 

coal,  18. 

cottonseed,  215. 

distilled,  19. 

distinguished  from  fats,  214. 

frying  in  olive  oil,  218. 

in  nuts,  215. 

vegetable,  213. 
Olein,  213. 
Oleomargarine,  215. 
Olive  oil,  frying  in,  215. 
Omelets : 

fancy,  92. 

French,  91. 
Oranges,  232. 

See  Fruit. 
Order  of  work,  in  preparing  a  meal,  356. 
Organic  matter,  definition  of  term,  23. 
Organs,  internal,  used  for  food,  183. 
Ossein,  157. 
Ovens : 

coal  range,  10. 

construction  and  management  of,  10, 
14,  16. 

for  cake,  276. 
Oxidation : 

definition  of,  66. 

of  food  in  the  body,  171. 

rusting  of  metals,  34. 

slow  and  rapid,  72. 
Oxygen  : 

as  element  of  food,  66. 

combustion,  7,  8. 

how  yeast  obtains,  130. 

in  air,  5. 

in  body,  56. 

in  starch,  56. 

properties  of,  56. 
Oysters  : 

as  food,  210. 

directions  for  frying,  224. 


INDEX 


397 


Oysters : 

for  stew,  211. 

how  to  serve  raw,  210. 

preparation  of,  210. 

scalloped,  210. 

study  and  structure  of,  207. 

Packing  flour,  119. 

Paint,  how  to  clean,  36. 

Palmitin  contained  in  fats,  213. 

Pan-baking,  49. 

Pan-broiling,  49. 

Pancreas,  183. 

Pancreatic  juice,  composition  of  and  use 

in  digestion  of  food,  370. 
Pans,  greasing  for  cake,  276. 
Parafiin,  304. 

Parker  House  rolls,  recipe  for,  135. 
Parsley : 

a  garnish,  92. 

cutting,  directions  for,  66. 

preparing  for  salad,  259. 
Pasteurization,  97. 
Pasteurizer,  322. 
Pasteurizing  milk,  321,  322. 
Pastry,  digestion  in  the  body,  218. 
Peaches : 

canning,  299. 

dried,  soaking,  236. 
Peach  ice-cream,  making,  290. 
Peanut  brittle,  candy,  recipe  for,  272. 
Pears : 

canning,  299. 

directions  for  baking,  234. 
Peas: 

analysis  of,  238. 

green  pea  soup,  recipe  for,  253. 

information  about,  250. 

split  pea  soup  (table),  254. 
Pectin : 

definition  of,  304. 

in  fruit  and  vegetables,  305. 

test  for,  305. 
Pepper,  white  and  black,  use  of,  in  cook- 
ing, 65. 
Pepsin : 

experiment  showing  digestion  of  eggs, 
87. 

gluten  in  bread  digested  by  pepsin,  370. 

in  gastric  juice,  86,  369. 
Peptonized  milk,  332. 


Perch,  information  about,  209. 
Personal  cleanliness,  46. 
Phosphorus : 

burning,  13. 

in  eggs,  88. 

in  milk,  95. 

in  nerves,  141. 
Physical  changes  of  matter,  55. 
Pickles,  303. 
Pickling,  303. 
Pineapple,  232. 

See  Fruit. 
Pineapples,  food  value,  229. 
Plain  bread  pudding,  recipe  for,  284. 
Plain  muffins,  recipe  for,  113. 
Plain  spice  cake,  making,  278. 
Plant  origin  of  coal,  23. 
Plants : 

breathe,  71. 

starchy,  59. 
Plate  of  beef,  location,  173,  178,  179. 
Plums,  canning,  299. 
Polished  wood,  cleaning  with  kerosene,  35. 
Popovers,  104. 
Pork: 

cuts  of,  182. 

how  sold,  192. 

prepared  for  eating,  193. 
Porterhouse  steak,  178. 
Potash : 

grease  removed  by,  33. 
Potato : 

choosing,  63. 

creamed,  65. 

croquettes,  recipe  for,  223. 

food  value  of,  66. 

how  to  cook,  63. 

how  to  keep,  63. 

how  to  pare,  63. 

mashed,  65. 

riced,  65. 

salad,  recipe  for,  263. 

structure  of,  62. 
Potatoes : 

baked,  59. 

boiled,  59. 

potash  salts  contained  in,  61. 

study  of,  60. 

sweet,  66. 

the  analysis  of,  61. 

their  composition,  62. 


398 


INDEX 


Poultry  food  value : 

digestion  of,  194. 

directions  for  stuffing,  197. 

how  to  dress  and  clean,  195. 

roasting,  197. 

selecting,  194. 
Pour-batter,  definition  of.  111. 
Powdered  sugar,  manufacture  of,  267. 
Preparations  for  meal,  352. 
Preparations  for  sick : 

eggs,  330. 

meat,  334. 

milk,  331. 
Preservation  of  food,  280. 

eggs,  83. 

fish,  206. 
Preservatives : 

definition  of,  296. 

soft    sugar,    etc.,     as     preservatives, 
296. 
Preserves,  definition  of,  303. 
Preserving  meat,  eggs,  fruit,  etc.,  297. 
Prime  ribs  of  beef,   location,  etc.,   174, 

180. 
Protein : 

albumin,  85. 

aleurone,  117. 

casein,  95. 

contains  nitrogen,  86. 

digestibility  of,  367. 

digestion  of,  366. 

food  value  of,  146. 

in  foodstuffs,  140. 

in  gluten,  117. 
^  in  milk,  95. 

in  vegetables,  238. 

nitric  acid  test  for,  151. 

pulp  of  meat,  consisting  of,  184. 

special  value  of,  141. 

vegetables  supplying,  240. 
Protoplasm,  definition  of,  140. 
Prunes : 

food  value  of,  228. 

stewing,  236. 
Ptyalin,  70. 
Pudding : 

apple  tapioca,  286. 

bread,  284. 

cottage,  277. 

creamy  rice,  287. 

plain  bread,  284. 


Pudding : 

recipes,  284-288. 

sauces,  282. 
Pure    and   impure    water,    organic    and 

inorganic  impurities,  24. 
Purees : 

bean  puree,  recipe  for,  253. 

definition  of  purees,  253. 
Pure  foods : 

definition  of,  53. 

law  of,  53. 
Putrefaction  caused  by  bacteria,  296. 

Queen  of  puddings,  recipe  for,  285. 
Quick  breads : 

definition  of,  104. 

digestion  of,  115. 

mixing  and  baking,  112. 

nut,  114. 
Quick  frosting  for  cakes,  281. 
Quinces,  for  jelly,  306. 

Rack  of  veal,  location  of,  181,  190. 
Radishes,  serving,  247. 
Raisins : 

food  value,  236. 

in  pudding,  285. 

stoning,  276. 
Ranges : 

cleaning  and  care  of,  45. 

construction     and     management     of, 
9-16. 

See  Stove. 
Raw  beef  sandwiches  for  invalids,  mak- 
ing, 335. 
Raw  fruit,  eating,  rules  for,  231. 
Raw  meat,  care  of,  154. 
Raw  oysters,  serving,  210. 
Raw  sugar,  manufacture  of,  267. 
Raw  vegetables,  serving,  247. 
Rechauffes : 

directions  for  making,  175. 

recipes  for,  175. 

soup  meat  used  in,  168. 
Recipe  for  standard  cake,  51. 
Red  meat,  nutriment  contained  in,  152. 
Refrigerator : 

care  of,  45. 

construction,  45. 

weekly  cleaning,  45. 
Rendering  fat,  218. 


INDEX 


399 


Rennet : 

action  on  milk,  98. 

custard,  recipe  for,  98,  99. 
Rennin,  aid  in  digestion  of  milk,  99,  369. 
Resin,  360. 
Rhubarb  sauce,  235. 
Rice : 

boiled,  74. 

cereal  food,  74. 

chartreuse  of  rice  and  meat,   recipe 
for,  176. 

cooking,  directions  for,  74,  76. 

creamy  rice  pudding,  recipe  for,  287. 

making  and  serving  soup,  168. 

savory  rice  croquettes,  224. 

value  as  food,  78. 

washing,  75. 
Riced  potato,  recipe  for,  66. 
Rinsing,  362. 
Rising  of  bread,  125. 
Roasting : 

basting  meat,  reasons  for,  159. 

definition  of  term,  48. 

directions  for,  154. 

gas   range,   use   of   broiling   oven   for 
roasting,  14. 
Rolled  flank  of  beef,  recipe  for,  173. 
Rolls,  bread,  making,  126,  135. 
Roots,  bulbs  and  tubers,  240. 
Roots,  feeding-organs  of  plants,  238. 
Rottenstone,   use  of,   for  cleaning  pur- 
poses, 34. 
Round  of  beef,  location  of,  178. 
Rump  of  beef,  location  of,  178. 
Rust,  34. 
Rye,  77. 

Salads  and  salad-making,  258,  259: 
arrangement  of,  260. 
cole-slaw,  264. 
definition  of,  258. 
dressing,  261-262. 
essentials  for,  259. 
four  essentials  in,  259. 
French,  261. 
Mayonnaise,  262. 
mixed  vegetable  salad,  263. 
potato,  263. 
preparation  of,  259. 
reason  for  eating,  260. 
stuffed  tomato,  264. 


Salads  and  salad-making : 

tomato,  264. 
Saliva: 

action  on  food,  70. 

how  secreted,  368. 
Salmon,  information  about,  209. 
Sal-soda,  see  Soda. 
Salt: 

action  on  meat,  154. 

as  preservative,  296. 

preservation  of  food  by,  296. 

solubiUty  in  water,  22. 
Salt  meats,  cooking  and  food  value  of, 

161. 
Salts : 

definition  of,  57. 

mineral  salts  in  wheat,  116. 
Salt-water    fish,    table    of    information, 

208. 
Sandwiches,  raw  beef,  for  invalids,  335. 
Sash    curtains :     special    directions    for 

laundering,  365. 
Sauces,  recipes  for : 

apple,  233. 

caramel,  284. 

drawn  butter,  204. 

egg,  204. 

fish,  204. 

hard,  282. 

mint,  358. 

pudding,  284. 

rhubarb,  235. 

stock  used  instead  of  water,  167. 

tartar,  204. 

thickening,  with  starch,  69. 

tomato,  122,  158. 

white,  66,  223,  247. 
Sausages,  182. 
Saut6ing,  definition  of,  and  directions  for, 

49,  218,  225. 
Savory  rice  croquettes,  recipe  for,  224. 
Scalloped  dishes : 

buttered  crumbs  for,  121. 

fish,  preparing,  204. 

vegetables,  247. 
Scalloped  oysters,  recipe  for,  211. 
Science,  domestic,  general  value  of,  2. 
Scouring,  steel  knives,  42. 
Scrubbing,  35. 
Scrubbing  floors,  35,  36. 
Seeds,  oil  contained  in,  215. 


400 


INDEX 


Serving : 

dishes,  355. 

food,  355. 
Sewage,  pollution  of  water,  24. 
Shad,  information  about,  209. 
Shellfish    as    food,    cooking,    etc.,    207, 

212. 
Shin  of  beef,  location  of,  179. 
Shirred  egg,  recipe  for,  331. 
Shortening : 

batters,  etc..  111. 

beef  fat  as,  226. 
Shoulder  of  mutton,  172,  180. 
Shredded-wheat  gruel,  recipe  for,  330. 
Shrimps,  212. 
Sick,  cookery  for  the : 

albuminized  milk,  332. 

arrangement  of  invalid's  tray,  336. 

beef  juice,  334. 

chop  broiled  in  paper,  335. 

clam  broth,  335. 

convalescent  diet,  328. 

cornmeal  gruel,  330. 

egg  gruel,  331. 

egg  preparations,  330. 

fermented  milk,  332. 

gluten  wafers,  333. 

gruels,  329. 

Irish  moss  jelly,  333. 

Irish  moss  lemonade,  336. 

kumiss,  332. 

lemon  whey,  336. 

light  diet,  327,  328. 

meat  preparations,  334. 

milk  preparations,  331. 

mutton  broth,  334. 

oatmeal  gruel,  330. 

peptonized  milk,  332. 

raw  beef  sandwiches,  335. 

rules  for  diet,  327,  329. 

shirred  eggs,  331. 

shredded-wheat  gruel,  330. 

three  kinds  of  diet,  327. 

wine  jelly,  335. 
Silver,  cleaning  of,  43. 
Simmering,     regulation    of     gas    range 

burner,  16. 
Simmering-point  of  water,  26. 
Sink: 

care  of,  37,  39. 

construction  of,  37. 


Sink: 

fixtures,  37. 

porcelain,  37. 
Sirloin  of  beef,  155,  179,  187. 
Skim  milk,  use  of,  96. 
Skirt  steak,  location,  etc.,  179,  189. 
Smelts,  information  about,  209. 
Smoke,  product  of  combustion,  8. 


chips,  362. 

composition  of,  32. 
■  how  it  cleans,  32. 

scouring  of,  33. 
Soapstone  griddle,  use  of,  107. 
Soda: 

cleaning,  care  in  using  sal-soda,  33. 

hard  water,  softening,  24. 

in  baking-powder,  108. 

in  cream-of-vegetable  soup,  257. 

in  griddle  cakes,  107,  109. 

study  of,  107. 

test  for,  108. 

See  also  Baking-soda. 
Sodium,  in  the  body,  142. 
Soft  and  hard  coal,  difference  between,  17. 
Solids,  explanation  of,  27. 
Solubility  of  substances  in  water,  experi- 
ments in,  22. 
Soot: 

preventing    accumulation    of    soot    in 
coal  range,  10. 

product  of  combustion,  8. 
Sorting  and  soaking  clothes,  361. 
Soup-making,  165-168,  253. 
Soup-stock : 

directions  for  making,  162. 

helpful  hints  about  making  and  using, 
166. 

materials  for,  165. 

to  clear,  167. 

use  of  vegetable  cooking  water,  253. 
Soups : 

bean  puree,  258. 

cream-of-vegetable  soups,  253, 255, 256. 

cro(itons,  preparing,  253. 

directions  for  making  stock,  162. 

economical  dish,  161. 

food  value  of,  168. 

green  pea  soup,  253. 

how  to  choose  soup  meat,  165. 

kettle  for,  164. 


INDEX 


401 


Soups : 

materials  for,  165. 

meat  soup,  167. 

noodles,  making,  168. 

soup-stock,  161. 

split-pea,  254. 

table  of  cream-of-vegetable,  254. 

tomato,  167,  256. 
Sour  milk : 

cause  of,  96. 

neutralization  of,  by  soda,  108,  109. 
Spaghetti : 

manufacture  of,  120. 

tomato  sauce,  122. 
Sparkling  jelly,  170. 
Spice : 

cake,  278. 

preservative,  296. 
Spiced  preserves,  303. 
Spinach,  information  about,  251. 
Split-pea  soup  (table),  254. 
Spoiling  of  food,  relation  of  bacteria  to, 

296. 
Sponge : 

definition  of,  127. 

for  breads,  126. 
Sponge  cake : 

baking-powder,  279. 

definition  of,  274. 

hints  about  making,  280. 

how  to  mix,  276. 

old-fashioned,  278. 
Spores,  296. 
Spring  chicken,  194. 
Spring  wheat : 

composition  of,  117. 

difference  between  spring  and  winter 
wheats,  81. 
Sprouting  of  potato  and  composition  of 

potato,  relation  between,  63. 
Squashes : 

care  of,  243. 

cooking,  244. 

information  about,  251. 

selecting  in  market,  243. 
Stains,  fruit,  removing,  364. 
Stale  bread,  uses  for,  134. 
Standard  cake,  making,  51. 
Starch : 

a  carbohydrate,  72. 

action  of  saliva  on,  70. 
2d 


Starch  : 

as  food  for  body,  70. 

composition  of,  70. 

digestion  of,  70,  366,  368,  369. 

dry,  69. 

experiment  in  heating,  69. 

for  laundry,  363. 

fuel  for  body,  70. 

in  breakfast  food,  75. 

other  forms  of,  69. 

sources  of,  experiments  for,  67. 

starching,  363. 

study  for,  68. 

test  for,  61. 

use  of,  in  cooking,  69. 

See  also  Wheat,  Flour,  Potatoes,  etc. 
Steak : 

club,  178. 

Delmonico,  178. 

plank,  180,  189. 

Porterhouse,  178. 

round,  179. 

short,  178. 

sirloin,  179. 

skirt,  179,  189. 
Steam  : 

changing  of  water  into,  26. 

definition  of,  26. 

in  cooking  cereals,  74,  76. 

use  of,  for  heating,  27. 
Steaming : 

cereals,  directions  for,  76. 

definition  of  term,  49. 

double  boUers,  using,  74. 

moist  and  dry,  74. 
Steel  knives : 

cleaning,  34. 

removal  of  rust  from,  42,  44. 
Sterilization : 

definition  of,  297. 

directions  for  sterilizing,  299. 

fruit,  directions  for,  299. 

milk,  321. 

sterilizing  jars,  298. 

time  required  for,  300. 

to  keep  food,  297. 
Stewing : 

chicken,  199. 

choosing  meat  for,  173. 

definition  of  term,  171. 

directions  for  stewing  meat,  172. 


402 


INDEX 


Stewing: 

fruit,  directions  for,  236. 

helpful  hints  about,  174. 
Stews : 

chicken  for,  198. 

choosing  meat  for,  173. 

dumplings  for,  172. 

lamb,  171. 

stock  used  instead  of  water,  167. 

to  make,  172. 

what  make,  good,  172. 
Stirring  eggs,  directions  for,  90. 
Stock-making,  162,  166. 
Stomach,  digestion  of  food,  369. 
Stoves : 

broiling  by  gas  or  by  coal,  156. 

cleaning  and  care  of  stoves,  45. 

construction  and  management  of  gas 
stoves,  13-15. 

ranges  and  stoves,  distinction  between, 
9. 
Strainer-cloths,  washing,  44. 
Strainers,  wire,  washing,  41. 
Strawberries,  canning,  302. 
Strawberry  ice-cream,  making,  290. 
String  beans : 

composition  of,  245. 

directions  for  canning,  302. 

information  about,  249. 

preparing  for  salad,  259. 
Striped  bass,  information  about,  208. 
Study  of : 

apple,  227. 

bacteria,  294. 

baking-powder  and  soda,  107. 

bone,  163. 

coffee,  340. 

effect  of  heat  on  water,  25. 

growing  vegetable,  240. 

milk,  93. 

starch,  68. 

structure  of  fish,  201. 

structure  of  oyster,  207. 

sugar,  265. 

tea,  337. 

wheat,  116. 

white  potato,  60. 

yeast,  128. 
Stuffed  tomato  salad,  260,  264. 
Stuffing : 

for  baked  fish,  202. 


Stuffing : 

recipe  for,  197. 
Suet,  description  of,  179. 
Sugar : 

a  carbohydrate,  265. 

as  preservative,  296. 

boiling,  267. 

digestion  of,  366. 

food  value,  269. 

for  modifying  milk,  314. 

glucose  in,  265,  266. 

growth  of  yeast  hastened  by,  129. 

kinds  of,  266. 

made  from  .starch,  268. 

maltose,   formed   in  starch  digestion, 
70. 

manufacture  of,  267. 

soluble  in  water,  22. 

study  of,  265. 

See   also    Candy    making.    Molasses, 
Honey,  Syrup. 
Sugaring  fruits,  232. 
Suggestions  about : 

cooking  and  serving  vegetables,  252, 

eating  fruit,  230. 

order  of  work,  356. 

using  fat  in  cooking,  225. 
Sunlight : 

coal,  sun  as  source  of  energy  in,  17. 

natural  cleanser,  30. 
Swedish  rolls,  recipe  for,  135. 
Sweeping,  35. 
Sweet  breads,  183. 
Sweet  potatoes,  cooking,  66. 

food  value  of,  66. 
Sweets  and  sugar,  265. 
Syrup,  268. 

See  Candy. 

Table  of  information : 
beef,  186,  187,  188. 
cream-of- vegetable  soup,  254. 
cuts  of  meat,  186,  187,  188,  189,  190, 

191. 
fresh-water  fish,  209. 
mutton  and  lamb,  191,  192. 
pork,  193. 
salt-water  fish,  208. 
sugars,  270. 

vegetables,  248,  249,  250,  251. 
100-calorie  portions,  372. 


INDEX 


403 


Tables,  49-50. 

clearing,  354. 

general  rules  for  waiting  on,  353. 

how  to  lay,  350,  353. 

laying,  350-353. 

linen  decorations,  350. 

linen,  special  directions  for  laundering, 
365. 

service,  348. 
Tallow,  purified  mutton  fat,  181. 
Tannin : 

in  coffee,  341. 

in  tea,  338. 
Tapioca,  apple,  recipe  for,  286. 
Tarnish,  on  metal : 

cause  of,  34. 

explanation  and  removal  of,  34. 

of  silver,  43. 

removal  of,  34. 
Tartar  sauce,  recipe  for,  204. 
Tea: 

composition  of,  338. 

directions  for  making,  338. 

effect  of  hot  water  on,  338. 

growth  and  preparation  of,  339. 

how  grown  and  made  ready  for  mar- 
ket, 339. 

how  to  have  good  tea,  338. 

iced  tea,  339. 

kinds  and  qualities  of,  339. 

stimulating  property  of,  338. 

study  of,  337. 
Tea-biscuit,  recipe  for,  105. 
Temperature  of  water,  boiling  and  freez- 
ing points,  etc.,  26. 
Tenderloin,  158. 
Tender  meat,  cooking,  155. 
Tendon  in  meat,  explanation  of,  151. 
Theine,  in  tea  and  coffee,  338. 
Theobroma,  the   name  given  to   cocoa, 

343. 
Theory,  definition  of,  2. 
Thyme,  370. 
Tin,  cleaning,  34. 
Tissue,  definition  of,  139. 
Tissues  of  the   body  renewed  by  food, 

72. 
Toast : 

directions  for  making,  89. 

eggs  dropped  on,  90. 

mince  meat  on,  176. 


Toast: 

using  gas  range  for  toasting,  19. 

water,  89. 
Tomato  : 

canning,  directions  for,  298. 

information  about.  251. 

sauce,  recipe  for,  122. 

sauce,  with  chops,  157. 

serving,  247. 

soup,  recipe  for,  254. 

spaghetti,  with  sauce,  122. 

stuffed,  salad,  263. 
Tough  meat : 

explanation  of,  155. 

stewing  and  braising,  171. 
Towels  and  cloths : 

care  of,  44. 

special    instructions     for    laundering^ 
365. 
Trade  names  of  sugars,  266. 
Training  for  home  making,  importance 

of,  3. 
Tray  for  invalid,  336. 
Trypsin,  369. 
Turkeys,  selection  of,  194. 
Turnip,    cream-of-turnip    soup    (table), 

253. 
Typhoid  fever,  bacteria  causing,  295. 

Utensils : 
care  of,  311. 
washing  of,  41. 

Vanilla  ice-cream,  making,  290. 
Vapor,  definition  of,  26. 
Veal: 

appearance  of,  182. 

cuts  of,  181,  190. 

how  sold,  190. 

location  of  cuts  of,  181. 

prepared  for  eating,  190. 
Vegetable  foods,  see  Plant  foods. 
Vegetables : 

canned,  244. 

care  of,  243. 

composition  of,  239-^241. 

cooked,  prepared  for  salad,  258. 

digestibility  of,  242. 

dried,  244. 

food     value,     selection,     etc.,      240, 
243. 


404 


INDEX 


Vegetables : 

for  salad,  258. 

fresh,  243. 

how  to  cook,  244. 

preparation  of  fresh  vegetables,  243. 

protein  in,  238. 

purees,  253. 

scalloped,  247. 

seasoning,  246. 

selecting  for  meal,  242. 

selecting  in  market,  243. 

served  raw,  247. 

soups,  255. 

study  of  growing  vegetables,  240. 

suggestions  about  cooking  and  serving, 
252. 

table  of  information  about,  248-251. 
Vermicelli,  120-122. 

manufacture,  etc.,  121. 

soup,  making  and  serving,  162. 
Villi,  in  intestines,  371. 
Vinegar,  preservative,  296. 

Wafers,  gluten,  recipe  for,  333. 
Waiting  on  table,  353. 
Warmed-over  dishes  : 

directions  for,  175. 

hash,  175. 

meat  pie,  177. 

mince  meat  on  toast,  176. 

rechauffes,  175. 
Washing  clothes,  361. 
Washing  dishes  : 

directions  for,  41. 

special  instructions  for,  365. 
Washing  machine,  361. 
Washing  soda,  see  Soda. 
Water : 

action  of  cold  and  hot  water  on  meat, 
experiments,  154,  160. 

as  natural  aid  to  cleanliness,  30. 

as  product  of  combustion,  8. 

boiling  point  of,  25. 

characteristics  of  good  drinking  water, 
23. 

composition  of,  27. 

directions  in  freezing,  289. 

drinking,  24. 

effect  of  cold  on,  27. 

effect  of,  on  tea,  338. 

facts  about,  27  n. 


Water : 

filtering,  24. 

formation  of  ice,  28. 

function  in  the  body,  140. 

hard,  24. 

impurities  in,  23. 

in  nature,  22. 

in  relation  to  health,  28. 

lemon  ice,  291. 

natural  cleanser,  30. 

potatoes,  percentage  of  water  in,  62. 

pure,  23. 

soft,  best  for  cleaning  and  cooking,  24. 

solvent,  water  as,  22. 

uses,  composition,  etc.,  28. 
Water-bugs    in    kitchen,    exterminating, 

46. 
Water-ices : 

directions  for  making,  289. 

recipe  for  lemon -ice,  291. 
Water  toast,  making,  89. 
Weakfish,  information  about,  209. 
Weights   and   measures : 

directions  and  tables,  53. 

honest,  53. 
Welfare : 

family,  1. 

national,  1,  2. 
Wells,  pollution  of,  by  sewage,  24. 
Wheat : 

analysis  of  wheat  flour,  116. 

composition  of,  and  structure,  117. 

direction  for  cooking,  79. 

examination  of  wheat  grain,  117. 

food  value,  120. 

ginger  snaps,  279. 

gluten,  116. 

harvesting,  81. 

how  seedling  is  fed,  81. 

kinds  of,  81. 

king  of  cereals,  80. 

meal,  bolted  and  unbolted,  119,  120. 

shredded-wheat  gruel,  recipe  for,  330. 

spring  and  winter  wheat,  81. 

study  of,  116. 
Whey,  93. 

Whipped  cream,  recipe  for,  101. 
White  bread : 

comparison  with  other  foods,  136. 

making,  127. 
Whitefish,  information  about,  209. 


INDEX 


405 


White    fricassee    of    dishes    of    chicken, 

preparing,  194,  195. 
White  of  egg : 

composition  of,  85. 

separating  from  yolk,  90. 
White  potato,  study  of,  60. 
White  sauce,  recipe  for,  247. 
Whole-wheat : 

bread,  making,  124. 

flour,  production  of,  120. 

ginger  snaps,  making  (table),  279. 

muffins,  recipe  for,  113. 
Wine  jelly  : 

recipe  for,  335. 
Winter  and  spring  wheats,  difference  be- 
tween, 81. 
Women,  the  home  makers,  1. 
Wood,  cleaning,  35,  36. 
Woodwork,  care  of,  35. 
Working-men,  diet  of,  147. 
Work  of  the  body,  71. 
Wringing,  362. 


Yeast : 

action  in  bread  raising,  132. 

action  of,  on  sugar,  130. 

alcohol  in,  131. 

bacteria  compared  with,  295. 

causing  fermentation,  294. 

composition  of,  128. 

cultivated  yeasts,  131. 

dried,  131. 

growth  of,  129,  1301 

home-made,  130. 

oxygen  obtained  by,  130. 

story  of,  129. 

study  of,  128. 

to  make,  123. 

yeast  garden,  132. 
Yolk  of  eggs : 

composition  of,  85. 

separating  from  white,  90. 

Zein,  141. 

Zinc,  cleaning,  45. 


Printed  in  the  United  States  of  America. 


T 


HE  following  pages  contain  advertisements  of  a 
few  of  the  Macmillan  books  on  kindred  subjects 


THE   HEALTH   SERIES  OF   PHYSIOLOGY 
AND   HYGIENE 

By  M.  V.  O'SHEA 

Professor  of  Education,  University  of  Wisconsin,  Author  of 
"  Dynamic  Factors  in  Education,"  etc.,  and 

J.  H.   KELLOGG 

Superintendent  of  The  Battle  Creek  Sanitarium,  Author  of 
"  Man,  The  Masterpiece,"  etc. 

Health  Habits $.45      The  Body  in  Health     .     .     .$.65 

Health  and  Cleanliness     .     .      .55      Making  the  Most  of  Life      .      .65 


The  O'Shea  and  Kellogg  Health  Series  of  Physiology  and  Hygiene  is  devoted 
to  the  education  of  children  for  health.  It  presents  a  complete  course  of  instruc- 
tion, covering  every  phase  of  the  child's  physical  health  and  welfare.  These  books 
and  the  lessons  in  each  book  have  been  written  in  the  fullness  of  knowledge  of  the 
subject  and  with  a  deep  and  sympathetic  understanding  of  the  nature  and  the  needs 
of  children. 

The  characteristic  features  are : 

1.  The  lessons  encourage  children  to  form  health  habits.  They  supplement  the 
instruction  given  in  physical  training,  play,  and  exercise  toward  the  formation 
of  habits  of  posture ;  and  they  establish  the  child  in  the  right  habits  of  bodily 
maintenance,  rest,  recreation,  and  personal  hygiene. 

2.  The  lessons  harmonize  the  health  work  of  the  school,  the  home,  and  the  com- 
munity. They  teach  children  also  how  to  be  of  service  to  themselves  and 
others  in  emergencies. 

3.  In  these  lessons  children  are  taught  the  elementary  facts  and  principles  of 
physiology  and  hygiene.  They  are  taught  to  understand  with  sympathy  the 
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The  Health  Series  of  Physiology  and  Hygiene  is  adapted  in  every  feature  for 
use  in  elementary  schools.  The  four  books  make  a  complete  and  noteworthy 
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independently. 


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THE   NEW   GEOGRAPHIES 

By  the   late   RALPH    S.   TARR  and   FRANK    McMURRY 
First  Book $.65      Second  Book $1.10 


The  Tarr  and  McMurry  New  Geographies  represent  ideas  that  make  the 
teaching  of  geography  produce  results.     Distinctive  features  are  : 

1.  The  emphasis  of  humanized  geography.  The  physiographic  and  geological 
studies  in  geography  are  made  subordinate  to  the  industrial  activities,  the  his- 
tory, the  education,  and  the  development  of  the  people. 

2.  The  basis  in  home  geography.  In  the  beginning  of  the  course  and  through- 
out the  course,  the  study  of  geography  is  constantly  related  to  the  pupils'  own 
experiences. 

3.  The  stimulus  to  self-activity.  Pupils  are  taught  how  to  study,  led  to  think 
about  human  problems,  and  encouraged  to  use  thought  rather  than  memory 
in  their  study. 

4.  The  organization  of  material.  The  material  of  instruction  is  grouped  under 
topics;  topics  are  grouped  under  main  topics.  The  individuality  of  each 
topic  is  recognized.  There  are  frequent  comparisons  with  the  United  States 
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5.  The  use  of  the  type  method.  Wherever  it  can  be  used  to  advantage  in  pre- 
senting geographical  concepts,  in  developing  the  ideas  of  institutions,  regions, 
or  industries,  the  type  method  is  used. 

6.  The  appeal  to  the  interest  of  children.  Interest  is  gained  and  held  by  an 
adequate  treatment  of  topics  worked  out  in  sufficient  detail  to  make  the 
meaning  clear. 

In  every  feature  The  Tarr  and  McMurry  New  Geographies  are  in  har- 
mony with  the  principles  of  modern  pedagogy.     They  challenge  comparison. 


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ENGLISH   SPOKEN   AND   WRITTEN 

By  henry  p.   EMERSON 

Superintendent  of  Education,  Buffalo,  New  York,  and 

IDA  C.   BENDER 

Supervisor  of  Primary  Grades,  Buffalo,  New  York 

Book  One,  Lessons  in  Language  for  Primary  Grades $.35 

Book  Two,  Lessons  in  Language,  Literature  and  Composition       .      .50 
Book  Three,  Practical  Lessons  in  English  Grammar  and  Com- 
position       60 


The  English  Spoken  and  Written  Series  of  textbooks  in  language  has 
gained  recognition  for  merit  in  teaching  elementary  English  effectively.  The 
characteristic  features  of  the  series  are : 

1.  Definiteness  and  preciseness  of  aim.  The  chief  aims  of  the  English  course  — 
the  mastery  of  oral  and  written  expression  and  the  development  of  the  power 
of  language  appreciation  —  are  kept  constantly  before  the  teacher  and  pupil. 

2.  Constructive  language  work.  Interesting,  progressive,  and  constructive 
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of  instruction.  In  this  course,  oral  English  plays  an  important  part.  It  is  the 
basis  of  instruction  and  an  important  factor  in  the  development  of  every 
topic. 

3.  Effective  correlation.  The  language  work  is  correlated  with  the  other  sub- 
jects of  elementary  instruction  and  with  the  material  of  instruction  that  is  to 
be  gathered  by  the  pupils  out  of  school  life.  The  reading  done  in  school  and 
at  home  is,  likewise,  made  the  basis  of  particular  individual  language  lessons. 

4.  Well  planned  treatment  of  language  and  grammar.  Language  training  is  the 
main  purpose  of  the  series.  Training  in  English  grammar  is  given  its  proper 
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5.  Reviews.  There  is  ample  provision  for  review  work.  Every  new  principle 
is  developed  with  a  sufficient  number  of  exercises  for  practice  and  review. 
Cumulative  reviews  are  also  provided. 

The  success  with  which  English  Spoken  and  Written  has  been  used  indi- 
cates that  it  endures  well  the  test  of  use. 


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THE   NEW   SLOAN   READERS 

By   KATHERINE  E.  SLOAN 

Author  of  **  Primary  Reading  " 

The  Primer      .     .     .  $.30      The  Second  Reader $.35 

The  First  Reader     .      .30      The  Manual  for  Teachers 25 


The  New  Sloan  Readers  is  a  new  series  of  method  readers,  designed  to 
develop  in  the  shortest  possible  time  by  the  simplest  and  most  direct  methods 
the  independent  power  to  read. 

The  Primer.  In  The  Primer  the  child  proceeds  from  the  story  to  the  sentence 
and  learns  to  recognize  quickly  and  to  read  naturally  the  first  simple  lessons,  sen- 
tences, and  sight  words.  From  these  lessons  he  passes  naturally  to  the  first  lessons 
on  phonetic  elements.  Reading  lessons,  phonetic  drill  lessons,  and  word-building 
lessons  succeed  each  other  in  pleasing  variety  throughout  the  book. 

The  Primer  is  designed  for  the  first  half  year  of  school  work.  It  teaches  the 
child  as  a  memory  requirement  to  recognize  seventy-two  sight  words ;  to  give  cor- 
rectly the  sound  of  the  first  twenty-seven  simple  phonetic  elements ;  to  repeat  from 
memory  a  select  list  of  simple  rhymes  and  poems ;  and  to  read  a  goodly  number 
of  complete  stories. 

The  First  Reader.  The  First  Reader  gives  special  emphasis  to  the  development 
of  the  power  to  read  simple  phonetics.  These  phonetic  lessons  are  taught  in  con- 
nection with  lessons  on  splendid  stories  and  poems  for  continued  reading  and  drill. 

The  Second  Reader.  The  Second  Reader  aims  to  establish  the  child  in  the 
independent  power  to  read.  Charming  lessons  in  story  and  poetry  make  up  the 
reading  content  of  the  book.  These  offer  the  opportunity  for  drill  in  appreciative 
and  expressive  reading. 

The  Manual.  The  Manual  for  teachers  is  an  aid  to  effective  teaching.  It  ex- 
plains the  plan  and  discusses  in  detail  the  methods  that  are  used  in  systematizing 
the  work  and  in  teaching  the  daily  lessons. 


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»l  W     H  /  /  H  / 


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UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA  UBRARY 


